In the section called method

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a) one should describe the devices used and the procedure followed.

b) one usually gives detailed information about the ways of solving his problem and the results obtained.

c) maps, graphs and tables illustrating results are given.

One should

a) comment on his findings in the section results.

b) report on his data in diagrams, tables, figures, etc in the section results.

c) give and explain his findings providing the necessary figures and tables in the section results.

Discussion

a) is the last section to be written

b) is the most difficult section to write as it takes much time.

c) is best thought of in three steps: summarizing the main results, critical assessment of the procedure followed and the evaluation and interpretation of the results obtained.

Conclusion

a) can end with some ideas about further research.

b) contains a concise description of one’s findings.

c) explains the aims of the study.

2. Answer the following questions.

- Why is it difficult to write a research paper?

- What is the main purpose of any scientific report?

- Why is it necessary to read what is written by others on the problem of interest?

- Why must one write summary notes of the papers read?

- What is a summary?

- What are the main parts of theoretical (experimental) papers?

- What are additional minor sections of papers?

-What is the aim of introduction? What information should it contain?

- What is described in the section called method?

- What information is given in a) results, b) discussion?

- How is one supposed to conclude his article?

Read the text below and fulfill the tasks given in Comprehension check.

TEXT B

WRITING THE PAPER: STRUCTURE,

LINGUISTICS AND STYLE

A research paper has physical and structural characteristics. The physical characteristics consist of the title, the abstract, the introduction, the main body parts, the conclusion, acknowledgments and references, which you write in intended paragraphs.

Title. When you start reading a research paper, its title is perhaps the most important part, because the key words in the title help you make a decision whether the paper is of interest for you or not. Thus the title should not be very long and general, but rather specific. To achieve this effect you can first name the general subject followed by a colon and then:

– add the phrase that renames the subject or

– add the phrase that describes the type of study or

– add a sentence in a question form.

The title should always be relevant to the problem studied and fit the paper. It should provide code words which identify the main points of research.

Abstract. An abstract is a brief description of the paper. It summarizes the basic ideas developed in the paper. The abstract, as well as the title, helps readers decide to read or to skip the paper. Therefore, it should be accurate, concise, specific, objective and self-contained. As a rule, the abstract is placed at the beginning of the paper, below the title. It is written last, when the final version of the paper is produced. There are two types of abstracts: informational and descriptive. Informational abstracts provide communicative contents of reports and include purpose, methods, scope, results, conclusions, and recommendations. Descriptive abstracts tell what the report contains and include purpose, methods, scope, but not results, conclusions and recommendations.

Introduction. When you write the introduction, you begin with a broad statement relating to the subject of research and narrow it down to specifics, namely the thesis statement of the whole paper. It is usually a single declarative sentence, the assertion you make about the main points of your study. The thesis statement helps both the writer and the reader. For the writer, it provides a definite framework to follow in the rest of the paper. For the reader, it provides a guide for a clear understanding of what to expect from the rest of the paper

Body. The body of the paper should provide evidence in support of the thesis statement, each paragraph explaining one and only one aspect of the thesis. Begin each paragraph with a statement of the key idea in one sentence, which is called the topic sentence, and explain and support it with details and evidence. There are several ways of supporting the key idea and developing paragraphs – by describing, classifying, providing statistical data and scientific evidence, analyzing causes and effects, comparing and contrasting, etc. The strategies are determined by the point you want to make and the kind of information you have to work with.

Conclusion. The conclusion can be a summary of the introduction. But more importantly it should express your judgement on the research performed and the results obtained, explain the findings and/or make suggestions for further investigation.

Acknowledgements. This is an optional section. Thank people who directly contributed to the paper by providing data, assisting with some part of the analysis, proofreading, typing, etc.

Structually, a paper should have unity and coherence. Unity gives the writing single vision, and coherence connects the parts. Your paper has unity when it talks about one topic, step by step exploring it in depth. Your paper is coherent if all its parts fit together, talk about the same topic, are connected logically and flow smoothly from one to the other. To obtain this effect use cohesive devices.

Cohesive devices help readers follow a writer’s train of thought by connecting key words and phrases through a paper. Among such devices are pronoun references, same-word repetition, synonym repetition, sentence-structure repetition. Transition words serve as a bridge, connecting one paragraph with another. Transitions help readers anticipate how the next paragraph or sentence will affect the meaning of what they have just read:

– also, besides, furthermore, in addition – to add more thought;

– first, next, finally, later, afterwards, in front, beyond – to arrange ideas in order, time or space;

– but, still, yet, however, on the one hand, nevertheless – to connect two contrasting ideas;

– for example, in other words – to add an illustration or explanation;

– in short, in brief, to sum up – to summarize several ideas.

Nowadays in scientific publications there is a strong tendency to use definite verb tenses in certain types of papers. When you write a paper in natural sciences, use past tense or present perfect tense to cite an author’s work and/or show what has been accomplished. Use present tense when you discuss the results or when you mention established knowledge. Write your paper using the third person or the ‘scientific passive’, for example, ‘it was observed’, ‘it could be stated that…’.

Comprehension check

1. Prove that the following sentences are true/false. Give your arguments.

1. The title of any research paper is of most importance as it helps readers to decide whether this paper is of any interest for them.

2. Titles are usually rather general.

3. Titles should contain key words that identify the basic points of investigation.

4. The abstract describes briefly the contents of the paper and is written first.

5. There are informational and descriptive abstracts that include the same parts.

6. Introduction usually begins with a declarative sentence that provides readers with a guide for a clear understanding of what is given in the paper.

7. The body of any research paper should contain the proper facts in support of the thesis statement.

8. Strategies used for proving the hypothesis advanced differ and their choice depends on the findings obtained.

9. Conclusion is just a summary of introduction.

10. It is of significance to comment on the results obtained in conclusion.

11. Acknowledgement is an optional section that is rarely written by scientists.

12. Any research paper has unity and is coherent.

2. Arrange the jumbled sentences in the logical order.

1. Thesis statements are of use for both the writer and the reader.

2. In conclusion one can make suggestions for further research.

3. The title of a research paper plays an important role as it helps to understand whether this paper is of interest or not.

4. Any research paper has some physical and structural characteristics.

5. In acknowledgements scientists usually thank those who contributed to their work.

6. Abstracts are accurate and concise descriptions of papers.

7. Scientists formulate their thesis statements in introduction.

8. Any scientific paper should be coherent and have unity.

9. Key ideas of research papers can be supported using different strategies.

10. They can be either informational or descriptive depending on their structure and the information contained.

11. The body of the paper provides facts confirming the thesis statement.

Vocabulary work

1. (A). Match the opposites.

(B). Choose appropriate words from the box and use them in suitable forms in the sentences to follow.

1. Stuart was … about his spelling.

2. His conceptions were ….

3. They have come to the … conclusions.

4. She gave him an … look.

5. He learnt about her leaving for New Your by ….

6. This word is in … use.

7. The life of some insects is so … that it lasts only a day.

8. We were tired of his … remarks.

9. … with your wishes, I have asked that the meeting take place tomorrow.

10. At the … of the ceremonies a huge limousine arrived.

11. My marks in … to yours are excellent.

2. (A). Find words that have similar meanings.

(B). Fill in the blanks using the proper words from the box above in suitable forms. (Sometimes more than one word is possible).

1. I haven’t much of an … of him.

2. We … his silence as consent.

3. I have nothing … to do.

4. She expressed her … on this problem.

5. He is very … about dates and facts.

6. Can you give a brief … of this text?

7. She is a … of all the virtues.

8. He could not … himself for joy.

9. Keep two things …!

3. (A). Choose adjectives from the box that can be combined with the following nouns: section, abstract, title, study, description. Make use of the texts to fulfill the task. Add some more word combinations if possible.

(B). Use some word combinations from the previous exercise to complete the following sentences. (Sometimes more than one word combination is possible).

1. This is an … …. You may not include in the book.

2. Articles are usually preceded by either … or … ….

3. The … of your article is very ….

4. His … … was of greater importance.

5. She gave a … … of the events whose participant she had been.

6. Our … … is devoted to the problem of interaction of different particles.

7. The … of a research paper should be … to the problem under study.

4. (A). Fill in the table with the missing forms. Form as many nouns as possible.

(B). Complete the sentences using some of the nouns derived from the verbs given above.

1. The entire matter is under …

2. … should contain a commentary on the pieces edited, and nothing more.

3. Our … are of great significance.

4. He read this book on first …..

5. His memoirs contain many … to interesting people.

6. This book is a regular ….

7. Matter has ….

5. Fill in the blanks using the words from the box.

1. It is unlikely that his article will ever be …

2. One has to … his paper for … if he wants it to be published in a journal.

3. She was absolutely sure that her … were of great importance.

4. Nowadays in scientific … there is a strong tendency to use definite verb tenses in certain types of papers.

5. He learnt about her writing a paper until after its … to the journal “Physics Review”.

6. Someone who … an article is called a ….

7. Writing summaries proves to be very helpful when you … an article or a book.

8. Make sure that your … are consistent with the hypothesis advanced.

9. Research papers based on experiments include …, methods and results, discussion and ….

6. Replace the words in italics by the proper words from the box.

1. The research-writing process is a time consuming procedure requiring a deep knowledge of the problem under study.

2. Most articles contain similar sections.

3. Findings are not mentioned in the introduction.

4. It is important to note whether your data are in agreement with the hypothesis put forward.

5. In conclusion one summarizes his findings using clear and brief statements.

6. The title helps one to determine whether the paper is interesting for him.

7. He provided evidence that confirmed his hypothesis.

8. The reviewer expressed his opinion on the research performed.

9. She explained her findings and made suggestions for further research.

7. Translate into English.

1. Написание научной работы требует много времени и усилий.

2. Основная цель любого научного труда – сообщить свою точку зрения по поводу исследуемой проблемы и предоставить точную информацию об исследовании.

3. Большинство научных работ имеет похожую структуру: введение, основная часть исследования и заключение.

4. Введение содержит краткие исходные данные, касающиеся проблемы, формулировку самой исследуемой проблемы и гипотезы. Однако результаты текущего исследования во введении не сообщаются.

5. Основная часть работы, если она касается исследования, базирующегося на экспериментах, состоит из методов, результатов и обсуждения.

6. В разделе, который называется «методы», описываются используемые в ходе исследования приборы и применяемые методики.

7. Раздел “результаты” содержит информацию о полученных данных, которые подкрепляются диаграммами, таблицами, рисунками и т.д.

8. Самый трудный раздел научной работы – “обсуждение”, в котором анализируются и оцениваются полученные результаты.

9. В разделе “заключение” снова формулируются цели исследования, кратко суммируются полученные результаты и делаются выводы.

Follow-up activities

1. In pairs, discuss the most important guidelines that help scientists to write research papers.

2. You are an experienced scientist and have written a lot of articles. Provide your young colleague with the necessary information about the research-writing process.

UNIT 12

ACADEMIC DEGREES

Pre-reading tasks

1. Have you ever heard about such a notion as an academic degree? In your opinion, what does it mean?

2. What do you think: are foreign and national academic degree systems similar or different? Explain your point of view.

3. Match the words given in bold type in the text below with their definitions.

Reading

Read the first part of the text “Academic degrees abroad” and choose appropriate words to fill in the blanks.

ACADEMIC DEGREES ABROAD

A degree is an academic 1) … conferred after completing a higher education 2) … or a piece of research. Though there exists considerable 3) … of degrees in different countries, some 4) … can be found among certain groups of countries, including those of the British Commonwealth, continental Europe, America and the Far East.

One can distinguish the principal types of 5) … degrees – bachelor, master and doctor which reflect different levels of academic achievements. Depending on the subject studied the word 6) … or the word 7) …is used in the names of degrees, the former being used for the humanities and the latter – for natural and exact sciences.

The Bachelor’s Degree is the best known academic degree. The main bachelor’s degrees are Bachelor of Arts (BA) and Bachelor of Science (BSc). Abbreviations 8) … between institutions. Other baccalaureate degrees 9) … by most universities are Bachelor of Education, Bachelor of Music, Bachelor of Business Administration, Bachelor of Divinity, Bachelor of Home Economics.

Undergraduates can 10) …. the Bachelor’s degree when they have passed their university examinations, or in some cases other examinations of equivalent level. This normally 11) … at least three years of full-time study after passing the advanced level certificate of education at the age of eighteen. Thus, most people become BA, BSc, etc at the age of at least 21. First 12) … in medicine require 6 years of study, some others four.

Students who are engaged in studying engineering usually spend some periods during their degree courses away from their academic 13) … at industrial enterprises where they may get practical 14) …. A student of a foreign language normally spends a year in a country where that language is spoken. Bachelors’ degrees are usually 15) … after passing several three-hour examinations together with practical work or long essays or dissertations. Degrees are classified. About a tenth (or less) of candidates win first-class, honours degrees, three quarters – second-class, and the rest – third-class, or pass without fail. A person studying for a degree at a British university is called an undergraduate.

About 33 percent of students continue to study for degrees of Master (of Arts, Science, Education, Music, etc). There exist about 45 varieties of Master of Arts degrees and 40 varieties of Master of Science degrees. The degree of Master requires one or two further years of study, with examination papers and a substantial dissertation. Bachelors’ and Masters’ degrees can be conferred “with honours” in various classes and divisions, or “with distinction”. This is indicated by the abbreviation “(Hons)” and is often a prerequisite for progression to a higher level of study.

Only 15 percent of students study further for receiving the most advanced degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) or Doctor of Science (DSc). They are supposed to write theses which are original contributions to particular fields of knowledge.

Doctor’s degrees in many foreign countries are of two distinct types: professional or practitioner’s degrees, and research degrees.

The former represent advanced training for the practice of various professions, chiefly in medicine and law. The principal ones are Doctor of Sc. Medicine, Doctor of Dental Science, Doctor of Pharmacy and Doctor of Jurisprudence. These degrees imply advanced research.

Research degrees are quite different in character. They represent prolonged periods of advanced study and usually take at least three years beyond the baccalaureate. Research degrees involve writing a dissertation that must be a substantial contribution to a particular field of science. The most important of these is the Doctor of Philosophy, which represents advanced research in any major field of knowledge. Second in importance and much more recent as a research degree is the Doctor of Sc. Education (Ed.D.) It was first awarded by Harvard in 1920. The only other earned doctorates of the research type currently conferred by some institutions are the Doctor of the Science of Law and the Doctor of Business Administration.

1. a) distinction b) qualification c) certificate d) level

2. a) course b) program c) curriculum d) classes

3. a) difference b) similarity c) diversity d) likeness

4. a) differences b) variety c) distinction d) similarities

5. a) academic b) scientific c) advanced d) learned

6. a) science b) arts c) education d) philosophy

7. a) philosophy b) pedagogy c) science d) arts

8. a) change b) alter c) modify d) vary

9. a) offered b) presented c) held d) received

10. a) award b) attain c) confer d) reach

11. a) contains b) includes c) involves d) combines

12. a) degrees b) awards c) prizes d) ranks

13. a) research b) studies c) investigations d) inquiries

14. a) experiment b) habits c) experience d) qualities

15. a) rewarded b) bestowed c) granted d) awarded

Read the whole text carefully to fulfill the tasks given in Comprehension check.

Comprehension check

1. Complete the sentences with the best ending a, b, or c.

An academic degree

a) can be attained by students who passed their A-level examinations.

b) is awarded on completion of a higher education course.

c) is conferred after writing lengthy essays.

The names of degrees

a) are linked with the subject studied.

b) are connected with the field of research.

c) originate from the names of sciences.

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