Scientists and technologists

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a) were involved in different activities in the ancient cultures.

b) have always been interested in solving the same problems.

c) worried about applications of scientific principles to technology in the 18^th century.

The growth of technology in the Middle Ages

a) was disregarded.

b) led to commercial expansion.

c) attracted attention of educated people.

Experimental science

a) as Francis Bacon thought, could become a means of expanding man’s power over nature.

b) helped to advance technology.

c) attracted craftsmen who started learning scientific principles.

8. In the 18^th century scientists

a) pursued their investigations taking into account future applications in industry.

b) carried out their research at random.

c) applied different techniques in their work.

2. Give detailed answers to the questions.

1. Why is the history of technology longer than that of science?

2. What is technology?

3. What is science concerned with?

4. What depends on skills of literacy and numeracy? And why?

5. What is the difference between science and technology?

6. Why did the situation change in the Middle Ages?

7. Why did the technological growth attract attention of natural philosophers?

8. Why did Bacon urge scientists to study the methods of craftsmen?

9. In what activities were craftsmen and scientists involved over the next 200 years?

10. What contribution did Edison make to the development of relationships between science and technology?

11. How did scientific principles influence the development of technology?

12. What examples of the reverse influence of technology on science can you give?

3. Some sentences given below are contrary to the information given in the text. Find them and correct their information.

1. The history of science differs from that of technology.

2. Technology includes a number of different methods and procedures for making things.

3. Science is a means of explaining natural phenomena.

4. The appearance of science is connected with the emergence of the great world civilizations.

5. Activities of scientists and technologists have never had any points of intersection.

6. Interactions of science and technology in the Middle Ages could have resulted in enlarging man’s power over nature.

7. Technological innovations of the 17^th century were the results of experimental science.

8. In the 19^th century scientists and technologists pursued the same aims.

9. The role of Michael Faraday in establishing relationships between science and technology is of great importance.

10. Technologists create new machines and tools that help scientists to gain a deep insight into the natural world.

4. Organize the jumbled sentences given below to sum up the problems described in the text.

1. Though scientists and craftsmen were still involved in different activities the application of scientific principles to technology grew rapidly.

2. Science explains natural phenomena.

3. But in the Middle Ages technology and science began to interact.

4. The history of science is distinct from the history of technology.

5. Technology is as old as manlike life while science appeared when the great world civilizations emerged.

6. This was not a one-way influence of science on technology as technologists created new machines that enabled scientists to extend their knowledge about the world.

7. Technology is concerned with the production of things.

8. Bacon urged scientists and craftsmen to study methods and principles of each other.

9. At first there were very few points of intersection of science and technology.

Vocabulary work

1. (A). Find pairs of words having the opposite meaning.

(B). Choose from the box appropriate words and use them in suitable forms in the sentences to follow.

1. She is proud of his ….

2. It was a matter of perfect … to me.

3. When air is warmed it … and becomes lighter.

4. He is pleased as his business is ….

5. He offered to help but was ….

6. He defeated his … in the election.

7. It’s … to try to convince her.

2. (A). Match words with similar meanings.

(B). Fill in the blanks using the proper words from the box above in suitable forms. Sometimes more than one word is possible.

1. Scientists have created a new … for treating some diseases.

2. He neglected his … when he was at school.

3. You can’t just do it however you like – you must follow the …

4. She … me to accept the compromise.

5. He … difficulties of conducting this experiment.

6. I cannot … even the idea of it.

7. The matter is settled ….

8. He made a useful … through medical literature.

9. He acted on ….

10. My dreams came ….

3. (A). Choose adjectives from the left-hand column and match them with suitable nouns from the right-hand column. Use the text above to fulfill the task.

(B). Use some of the word combinations from the previous exercise to complete the following sentences.

1. He conducted his research in a … ….

2. We can’t assert that there’s a … … of technology on science.

3. Researchers managed to achieve an … … into nature.

4. It was impossible to verify his … …..

5. His research problem was of … … to us.

6. The … … was characterized by a rapid development of culture.

7. It was the time of … ….

8. The … … of production resulted in improving the standard of living.

9. The … … can sometimes lead to a successful solution of a problem.

4. (A). Name the verbs corresponding to the following nouns.

Technology, distinction, fabrication, comparison, stimulus, emergence, craftsman, pursuit, relation, failure.

(B). Complete the sentences using the verbs you have just formed.

1. I could not … her among the crowd.

2. The story was … from beginning to end.

3. Her later work does not … with her earlier.

4. He … me to make greater efforts to finish the work on time.

5. What results … from your talks?

6. All our hopes have ….

7. He … his studies in 2 years.

8. He noticed nothing but what …. to himself.

5. Fill in the blanks using suitable words from the box.

1. This review … the light on the difference between science and technology.

2. Technology is a number of … for making things.

3. Science is … explaining and understanding the world of nature.

4. Science has been a field of … speculation practised by philosophers.

5. Functions of scientists and technologists remained … in the ancient cultures.

6. The … growth of technology attracted educated people.

7. Scientists were … to study methods employed by craftsmen.

8. Scientific research was directed towards industrial ….

9. He … the way to the development of mathematical modelling and simulation processes.

6. Use the words in brackets in the necessary form.

1. Technology is connected with the (fabricate) and use of artifacts.

2. Scientists have to acquire (compare) complicated skills.

3. Science and technology were (differ) activities.

4. He considered (experiment) science as a means of expanding man’s power over nature.

5. Craftsmen produced steam engines and textile machinery without any reference to (science) principles.

6. He applied scientific principles to the (develop) of plastics.

7. Michael Faraday prepared the ground for further (technology) advances.

8. From this (achieve) they started applying scientific principles to technology.

9. These developments led to a highly (efficiency) level of performance.

7. Translate the sentences.

1. Технология представляет собой совокупность приемов и методов для производства различных предметов.

2. Одной из задач науки является объяснение окружающего нас мира.

3. Возникновение науки стало возможным в связи с появлением великих мировых цивилизаций.

4. Наука и техника оставались различными областями деятельности человека на протяжении длительного времени.

5. Ситуация изменилась в средние века.

6. Среди выдающихся достижений человека в то время было создание магнитного компаса, печатного станка и черного пороха.

7. Френсис Бэкон считал, что экспериментальная наука способствует расширению власти человека над природой.

8. Однако слияние науки и техники не было доведено до конца, и потребовалось несколько столетий, чтобы специалисты в области техники руководствовались научными принципами в своей работе, а ученые начали использовать технические методы и приемы.

9. Томас Эдисон сыграл важную роль в углублении взаимосвязи науки и техники.

8. Fill in the crossword puzzle.

Down

1. Performing; notable action; achievement.

2. Enormous; surprisingly great; wonderful.

3. Machines collectively; methods, organization.

4. Person who proposes smth.

5. Connection; what there is between one thing, person, idea, etc. and another or others.

6. Understanding; power of seeing into smth with the mind.

Across

7. The application of science for the control and use of power, esp. by the use of machines; the technology, work or profession of an engineer.

8. Push or thrust; impetus; sudden inclination to act without thought about the consequences.

9. Without order or plan; at random.

Follow-up activities

1. Prepare a report forecasting further interactions of science and technology.

2. Roleplay:

Student A. Find additional information about other experimental scientists who applied scientific principles to technology.

Student B. Interview your partner about the contribution this scientist made to the development of both science and technology.

UNIT 4

THEORY AND EXPERIMENT

Pre-reading tasks

1. Can you name theories that stimulated scientific progress? Comment on your choice.

2. Explain the role of experiments in conducting investigations.

3. Enumerate the main stages of the experiment. Are they of equal importance for the results of the experiment?

4. In your opinion, whose work is of greater value that of a theorist or an experimentalist? Give your arguments.

5. Choose from the box suitable definitions of the following words: to theorize, empirical, structure, explanatory, relationship, to advance, term, to generalize, to predict, theorem, interplay.

6. Match the words of two columns to form collocations. Use one word once only. Make use of the texts given below to fulfill the task.

Reading

Read the first two paragraphs of the text “Scientific theory” and fill in the blanks choosing appropriate words.

TEXT A

SCIENTIFIC THEORY

A scientific theory is a 1) … 2) … of broad scope, conceived by the human imagination, that encompasses a family of empirical laws 3) … regularities existing in objects and events, both 4) … and posited. A scientific 5) … is a structure suggested by these 6) … and is devised to 7) … them in a scientifically rational 8) ….

In attempting to explain things and 9) … the scientist employs (a) careful 10) … or experiments, (b) reports of regularities, and (c) systematic explanatory 11) ….. The statements of regularities, if 12) …, may be taken as empirical laws 13) … continuing relationships among the things or 14) … observed. Thus, when empirical laws are able to 15) … curiosity by uncovering orderliness in the behaviour of things or events, the scientist may advance a scientific scheme, or scientific theory, to provide an accepted explanation of why these laws hold.

Empirical laws and scientific theories differ in several ways. In a law, reasonably clear observational rules are available for determining the meaning of each of its terms; thus, a law can be tested by carefully observing the things and properties referred to by these terms. Indeed, they are initially formulated by generalizing or schematizing from observed relationships. In the case of scientific theories, however, some of the terms commonly refer to things that are not observed. Thus, it is evident that theories are imaginative constructs of the human mind – the results of philosophical and aesthetic judgments as well as of observation - for they are only suggested by observational information rather than inductively generalized from it. Moreover, theories cannot ordinarily be tested and accepted on the same grounds as laws. Thus, whereas an empirical law expresses a unifying relationship among a small selection of observables, scientific theories have much greater scope, explaining a variety of such laws and predicting others jet undiscovered.

A theory may be characterized as a postulational system (a set of premises) from which empirical laws are deducible as theorems. Thus, it can have an abstract logical form, with axioms, formation rules, and rules for drawing deductions from axioms as well as definitions for empirically interpreting its symbols. In practice, however, theories are seldom structured so carefully.

1. a) systematic b) random c) organized d) methodical

2. a) scheme b) structure c) construction d) arrangement

3. a) relating b) referring c) regarding d) estimating

4. a) looked at b) observed c) witnessed d) regarded

5. a) theory b) hypothesis c) assumption d) explanation

6. a) orders b) decrees c) rules d) laws

7. a) clarify b) define c) explain d) highlight

8. a) manner b) style c) fashion d) custom

9. a) episodes b) incidents c) results d) events

10. a) comment b) observation c) remark d) opinion

11. a) plans b) plots c) designs d) schemes

12. a) thorough b) careful c) accurate d) inexact

13. a) uttering b) formulating c) declaring d) expressing

14. a) traits b) typical c) characteristics d) differences

15. a) please b) gratify c) satisfy d) meet

Read both texts carefully to fulfill the tasks given in Comprehension check.

TEXT B

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