Grammatical Structure of the English Language

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The Gerund

§ 16. General notion.................................................................................................... 206

§ 17. Double nature of the gerund............................................................................ 206

§ 18. Tense distinctions of the gerund..................................................................... 208

§ 19. Voice distinctions of the gerund..................................................................... 210

§ 20. Predicative constructions with the gerund................................................... 210

§21. The use of the gerund....................................................................................... 212

§ 22. The gerund and the infinitive........................................................................... 215

§ 23. The functions of the gerund............................................................................. 217

§ 24. The gerund and the participle.......................................................................... 222

§ 25. The gerund and the verbal noun...................................................................... 223

The Infinitive

§ 26. General notion.................................................................................................... 224

§ 27. Tense and aspect distinctions of the infinitive............................................ 224

§ 28. Voice distinctions of the infinitive................................................................. 226

§ 29. The use of the infinitive without the particle to............................................ 226

§ 30. The functions of the infinitive......................................................................... 229

         § 31. Infinitive constructions……………………………………………………...234

§ 32. The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction........................................... 234

§ 33. The Subjective Infinitive Construction.......................................................... 239

§ 34. The for-to-Infinitive Construction.................................................................. 242

§ 35. The infinitive with the expressions to be sorry, to be glad........................ 244

Chapter IX.The Adverb

§1. Definition............................................................................................................ 245

§ 2. Morphological structure................................................................................... 245

§ 3. Degrees of comparison..................................................................................... 245

§ 4. Classification...................................................................................................... 246

Chapter X.The Modal Words

§1. Definition............................................................................................................. 247

§2. Classification...................................................................................................... 247

§3. Use........................................................................................................................ 247

§ 4. Modal words and adverbs................................................................................. 247

Chapter XI.The Interjection

§1. Definition............................................................................................................. 249

§2. Classification....................................................................................................... 249

§ 3. Morphological composotion.............................................................................. 249

Chapter XII.The Preposition

§1. Definition............................................................................................................. 251

§ 2. Morphological structure..................................................................................... 251

§ 3. Classification........................................................................................................ 251

§ 4. Prepositions, adverbs and conjunctions........................................................... 252

§ 5. Prepositions and postpositions.......................................................................... 253

Chapter XIII.The Conjunction

§1. Definition............................................................................................................ 254

§ 2. Morphological structure.................................................................................... 254

§3. Classification...................................................................................................... 255

§ 4. Coordinating conjunctions............................................................................... 255

§ 5. Subordinating conjunctions.............................................................................. 258

Chapter XIV.The Particle

§1. Definition............................................................................................................. 261

§2. Classification....................................................................................................... 261

Part II SYNTAX

Chapter XV.The Simple Sentence

§1. Definition.............................................................................................................. 264

§2. Classification....................................................................................................... 264

§3-4. Structure ............................................................................................................ 267

Parts of the Sentence

The principal parts of the sentence............................................................................. 269

The Subject................................................................................. 269

§5. Definition ............................................................................................................. 269

§ 6. Ways of expressing the subject........................................................................ 269

§ 7. It as the subject of the sentence......................................................................... 272

The predicate............................................................................... 274

§8. Definition.............................................................................................................. 274

§ 9. The simple predicate........................................................................................... 275

§ 10. The predicate expressed by a phraseological unit........................................ 275

§ 11. The compound predicate.................................................................................. 277

§ 12. The compound nominal predicate................................................................... 277

§ 13. The predicative.................................................................................................. 280

§ 14. The Objective Predicative................................................................................ 282

§ 15. The compound verbal predicate...................................................................... 283

§ 16. The compound verbal modal predicate ......................................................... 283

§ 17. The compound verbal aspect predicate.......................................................... 284

§ 18. Mixed types of predicate.................................................................................. 285

Agreement of the predicate with the subject................................... 286

§ 19. General notion.................................................................................................... 286

§ 20. Rules of agreement............................................................................................ 287

§21. Agreemen of the predicate with the subject expressed by a syntactic

word-group......................................................................................................... 291

The secondary parts of the sentence.......................................................................... 294

The object................................................................................... 294

§22. Definition........................................................................................................... 294

§ 23. Ways of expressing the object......................................................................... 294

§24. Kinds of objects................................................................................................ 296

§25. The direct object............................................................................................... 296

§ 26. The indirect object............................................................................................. 296

§ 27. The complex object........................................................................................... 299

§ 28. The cognate object............................................................................................. 300

The attribute............................................................................... 301

§29. Definition........................................................................................................... 301

§ 30. Ways of expressing the attribute................................................................... 301

§ 31. The apposition .................................................................................................. 305

§ 32. The close apposition......................................................................................... 305

§ 33. The loose or detached apposition................................................................... 306

The adverbial modifier................................................................. 306

§ 34. Definition and classification........................................................................... 306

§ 35. Ways of expressing the adverbial modifier................................................. 308

Detached (loose) parts of the sentence.......................................... 310

§36. Definition................................................................... 310

§ 37. The detached adverbial modifier.................................................................... 311

§ 38. The detached attribute...................................................................................... 312

§ 39. The detached object.......................................................................................... 312

The independent elements of the sentence...................................... 312

§40. Definition............................................................................................................. 312

§41. Parenthesis....................................................................................................... 313

Sentences with homogeneous parts............................................... 314

Chapter XVI.Word Order

§ 1. General remarks................................................................................................... 316

§2-4. Inverted order of words.................................................................................... 317

§ 5. Position of the object.......................................................................................... 322

§ 6. Position of the attribute..................................................................................... 323

§ 7. Position of adverbial modifiers......................................................................... 327

Chapter XVII.The Compound Sentence

and the Complex Sentence

The compound sentence................................................................................................... 332

§ 1. General notion.................................................................................................... 332

§ 2. Types of coordination......................................................................................... 332

The complex sentence....................................................................................................... 334

§ 3. General notion.................................................................................................... 334

§ 4. Subject clauses..................................................................................................... 336

§5. Predicative clauses.............................................................................................. 337

§ 6. Object clauses...................................................................................................... 338

§ 7. Attributive clauses............................................................................................... 340

§ 8. Attributive relative clauses................................................................................ 340

§ 9. Attributive appositive clauses........................................................................... 342

§ 10. The use of relative pronouns in attributive relative clauses....................... 342

§ 11. Adverbial clauses............................................................................................ 344

§ 12. Adverbial clauses of time............................................................................... 345

§ 13. Adverbial clauses of place............................................................................... 346

§ 14. Adverbial clauses of cause............................................................................... 347

§ 15. Adverbial clauses of purpose........................................................................... 347

§ 16. Adverbial clauses of condition........................................................................ 348

§ 17. Adverbial clauses of concession..................................................................... 348

§ 18. Adverbial clauses of result............................................................................... 349

§ 19. Adverbial clauses of manner............................................................................ 349

§ 20. Adverbial clauses of comparison.................................................................... 350

§ 21. Polysemantic conjunctions............................................................................... 350

The compound-complex sentence...............................................................351

Parenthetical clauses.................................................................... 351

Chapter XVIII.The Sequence of Tenses

§1. Definition.............................................................................................................. 352

§2-5. General rules...................................................................................................... 353

§ 6. Tenses in English and in Russian....................................................................... 354

§ 7. Tenses in object clauses...................................................................................... 355

§ 8. Tenses in conventional direct speech............................................................... 355

§ 9. Tenses in attributive relative clauses and adverbial clauses of cause,

result, comparison, and concession................................................................ 355

§ 10. Tenses in subject clauses and predicative clauses....................................... 356

Chapter XIX.Indirect Speech

§ 1-2. General remarks................................................................................................ 357

§3. Indirect statements............................................................................................... 363

§ 4. Indirect questions................................................................................................. 365

§ 5. Indirect orders and requests............................................................................... 366

§ 6. Indirect offers, suggestions, and advice.......................................................... 368

§ 7. Indirect exclamations.......................................................................................... 369

§ 8. Greetings and leave-taking................................................................................. 369

Chapter XX.Punctuation

§ 1. General remarks................................................................................................... 371

The simple sentence............................................................................................................ 371

§2. Homogeneous members...................................................................................... 371

§ 3. Detached members............................................................................................... 372

§ 4. Parenthetical words, groups of words, and clauses....................................... 373

§ 5. Inteijections......................................................................................................... 374

§ 6. Nouns in address.................................................................................................. 374

The compound sentence.................................................................................................... 374

§ 7. Coordinate clauscs joined asyndetically.......................................................... 374

§ 8. Coordinate clauses joined by copulative conjunctions................................. 375

§ 9. Coordinate clauses joined by disjunctive conjunctions................................ 375

§ 10. Coordinate clauses joined by adversative conjunctions............................. 376

§11. Clauses joined by causative-consecutive conjunctions and

conjunctive adverbs.......................................................................................... 376

§ 12. Sentence containing direct speech ................................................................ 377

The complex sentence....................................................................................................... 378

§ 13. Subject clauses.................................................................................................. 378

§ 14. Predicative clauses................... ....................................................................... 378

§ 15. Object clauses.................................................................................................... 378

§ 16. Attributive clauses............................................................................................ 379

§ 17. Adverbial clauses.............................................................................................. 379

§ 18. Complex sentences consisting of two or more homogeneous

clauses................................................................................................................. 380

§ 19. Declarative non-exclamatory sentences........................................................ 380

§ 20. Sentences expressing a question..................................................................... 380

§21. Exclamatory sentences.................................................................................... 381

§ 22. Unfinished sentences........................................................................................ 381

Foreword

The book A Grammar of the English Language has enjoyed sev­eral editions and has been widely used for teaching grammar at many universities and pedagogical institutes of the former USSR, and later Russia. The book was written by seven authors, one of whom was my mother — Elena Vasiliyevna Prokofiyeva, who died very early in her life. It is to her memory that I would like, first of all, to dedicate my revision of this book. I also wish to express my esteem and accountability to the other authors concerned in its original conception.

I feel it is my duty and responsibility to help this book continue its life, for it can rightly be called one of the best textbooks in grammar ever written for students. In a very compact and logical form it provides a profound and detailed description of the grammatical system of the English language.

The object of this book is to give a course in English grammar to students specializing in the English language.

The book includes Accidence, i. e. the parts of speech and mor­phological categories, and Syntax, i. e. the sentence and the parts of the sentence. The rules are illustrated by examples taken from English and American authors of the 19th and 20th centuries. Some examples from modern dictionaries are also included in this edition.

Exercises on all topics covered in the manual are published in a separate volume, arranged in accordance with the chapters of the present book.

In the course of the years that have passed since the book was written, some changes have taken place in the English language. These concern, for example, the usage of the auxiliary verbs shall and will, the usage of the auxiliary verb do with the notional verb have, the shades in the meaning of some modal verbs, the use of some pronouns, etc. Changes in termi­nology have also occurred, for example, the term 'phrasal verbs' is by far more frequent than the term 'composite verbs' and 'exclamation mark' is used instead of'exclamation note'. And, it goes without saying, that there have been changes in the theory of the language.

I did not consider it my purpose to introduce considerable changes to the book. My basic objective was to bring it up to date by making necessary amendments. These tend to reflect the changes in the lan­guage rather than in the concept of syntax, which basically remains intact in this edition.

Elizaveta V. Ivanova

Introduction

§ 1. Languages may be synthetic and analytical according to their grammatical structure.

In synthetic languages, such as for instance Russian, the gram­matical relations between words are expressed by means of inflections: e. g. крыша дома.

In analytical languages, such as English, the grammatical relations between words are expressed by means of form words and word order: e. g .the roof of the house.

§ 2. Analytical forms are mostly proper to verbs. An analytical verb- form consists of one or more form words, which have no lexical meaning and only express one or more of the grammatical categories of person, number, tense, aspect, voice, mood, and one notional word, generally an infinitive or a participle: e. g. He has come, I am reading. The analytical forms are:

1. Tense and Aspect verb-forms (the Continuous form: lam writing, the Perfect form: I have written, the Perfect Continuous form: I have been writing, the Future Indefinite: I shall write, all the other forms of the Future; also the interrogative and the negative forms of the Present and Past Indefinite: Does he sing? He does not sing).

2. The Passive Voice: I was invited to the theatre.

3. The analytical form of the Subjunctive Mood: I should go there if I had time.

In all these analytical forms the form word is an auxiliary verb. (For detailed treatment see chapters on the verb.)

§ 3. However, the structure of a language is never purely synthetic or purely analytical. Accordingly in the English language there are:

1. Endings:

in the third person singular in the Present Indefinite: speaks; -s in the plural of nouns: tables; -s in the genitive case: my brother's book; -ed in the Past Indefinite of regular verbs: smoked.

2. Inner flexions: man — men; speak — spoke.

3. The synthetic forms of the Subjunctive Mood: were, be, have, etc.

§ 4. Owing to the scarcity of synthetic forms the order of words, which is fixed in English, acquires extreme importance: The fisherman caught a fish.

A deviation from the general principle of word order is possible only in special cases.

(For detailed treatment see Chapter XVI, Word Order.)

§ 5. One of the marked features of the English language is the extensive use of substitutes. A word substitute saves the repetition of a word in certain conditions. Here belong one, that, do.

One replaces class nouns in the singular and in the plural:

Thanks for the compliment, if it isone.

The hours he spent with Ruth were the only happyones he had, and they were not all happy. (London)

That generally substitutes nouns, especially abstract nouns and nouns of material followed by an attribute, mostly introduced by the preposition of.

He (Martin) watched the easy walk of the other in front of him, and for the first time realized that his walk was different fromthatof other men. (London)

Almost every day thereafter Mrs. Skelton would go for a ride in her own car orthat of Castleman. (Dreiser)

Do substitutes verbs:

You know your law better than Ido. (Galsworthy) Forgive me for speaking with brutal frankness, I onlydo so be­cause I care. (Alexander)

Part I

Accidence

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