Classification of borrowings according to the borrowed aspect

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 There are the following groups of borrowings: phonetic borrowings, translation loans, semantic borrowings, and morphemic borrowings.

Phonetic borrowings are typical in all languages; they are called loan words proper. Words are borrowed with their spelling, pronunciation and meaning. Then they suffer assimilation, each sound in the borrowed word is replaced by the corresponding sound of the borrowing language. Very often the spelling changes. The structure of the word can also be changed. The position of the stress is very often influenced by the phonetic system of the borrowing language. The paradigm of the word, and sometimes the meaning of the borrowed word are also changed. Such words as: labour, travel, table, chair, people are phonetic borrowings from French; apparatchik, nomenklatura, sputnik are phonetic borrowings from Russian; bank, soprano, duet are phonetic borrowings from Italian.

Translation loans are word-for-word translations of some foreign words or expressions. In such cases the notion is borrowed from a foreign language but it is expressed by native lexical units, “to take the bull by the horns” (Latin), “living space” (German). Some translation loans enterred the English language from Latin already in the Old English period, for example: Sunday (solis dies). There are translation loans from the languages of Indians, such as: “pipe of peace”, “pale-faced”, from German “masterpiece”, “homesickness”, “superman”.

Semantic borrowings are such units when a new meaning of the unit existing in the language is borrowed. It can happen when two relative languages have common words with different meanings, for example: there are semantic borrowings between Scandinavian and English, such as the meaning “to live” for the word “to dwell” which in Old English had the meaning “to wander”. Or the meaning “дар”, “подарок” for the word “gift” which in Old English had the meaning “выкуп за жену”. Semantic borrowing appears when an English word enters some other language, developes there a new meaning and this new meaning enters back into English. For example, the word “brigade” was borrowed into Russian and formed the meaning “a working collective”, “бригада”. Then this meaning was borrowed back into English as a Russian borrowing.

Morphemic borrowings are borrowings of affixes that appear in the language when many words with identical affixes are borrowed from one language into another, so that the morphemic structure of borrowed words becomes familiar to the people speaking the borrowing language. We can find a lot of Romanic affixes in the English word-building system, that is why there are a lot of words - hybrids in English where different morphemes have different origin. For example, “goddess”, “beautiful”.

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