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Between Woman and Hunting, the vice in connection with women is more serious. Under its influence, the King neglects his business; becoming addicted to women, he acquires distaste for state-business, he wastes time and loses in virtue, becomes addicted to the evils of drinking as also to lying and other pernicious habits. In Hunting on the other hand, there is physical exercise, a lessening of the humours of bile and phlegm, reduction of obesity, markmanship in ariming (aiming?) at moving as well as standing targets, also practice of hitting; the king also aquires a degree of alertness and cultivates the acquaintance of the village-folk.

Thus in the set of four vices proceeding from love of pleasure, that which precedes is more abominable than that which follows.

In the set born of anger also, assaulting is beset with evils, and is followed by addiction to lying and other evil habits. Between Assaulting and Cruelty of speech, Assaulting is more serious. In the case of assault, making up becomes impossible, while in the case of cruel speech the fire of auger and hatred is capable of being appeased by the subsequent bestowals of gifts and honour.

Between cruel speech and misappropriation of property, cruel speech is the more serious. Even high-minded persons become afflicted and perturbed in mind by cruel speech. To this effect we have the following saying: —

‘Even a powerful sword, or a black dart, entering the bone may make the body free from pain, when removed, but words never disappear from the heart; that which is pierced by an arrow grows again; the forest cut off by the axe again flourishes; but that which is wounded by rough and indecent speech never flourishes again’.

Misappropriation of property on the other hand is looked upon as an effect of ill-luck and as such high-minded people donot feel keenly about it.

Thus it is shown that in these two sets the preceding vice is more serious than the succeeding one. — (52)

Explanatory notes by Ganganath Jha:

This verse is quoted in Vīramitrodaya (Rājanīti, p. 148).

Comparative notes by various authors:

(verses 7.45-53)

See Comparative notes for Verse 7.45.

VERSE 7.53

Section IV - Duties of the King

व्यसनस्य च मृत्योश्च व्यसनं कष्टमुच्यते ।
व्यसन्यधोऽधो व्रजति स्वर्यात्यव्यसनी मृतः ॥५३॥

vyasanasya ca mṛtyośca vyasanaṃ kaṣṭamucyate |
vyasanyadho'dho vrajati svaryātyavyasanī mṛtaḥ ||53||

Between Vice & Death, Vice is said to be more harmful; the vicious man sinks down and down; but the dead man, without vices, ascends to heaven. — (53)

Medhātithi’s commentary (manubhāṣya):

Though both death and vice deprive one of every thing, yet there is this difference between them that death deprives one of everything, only in this world, while vice deprives him of all things in this world as well as in heaven.

‘The vicious man sinks down and down’ — falls into hell.

The term ‘vicious’ denotes excessive addiction to the aforesaid sets of vices. Hence it is such repeated addiction that is forbidden; not merely having recourse to them once in a way.

These vices become destructive of virtue, wealth, pleasure and life, even in the case of ordinary men; what to say of Kings? At the same time it would not be right to] abandon drinking etc. entirely; nor would it be possible; hence it is the habit that is forbidden. — (53)

Explanatory notes by Ganganath Jha:

This verse is quoted on Parāśaramādhava (Ācāra, p. 414); — and in Vīramitrodaya (Rājanīti, p. 149), which explains ‘adhodho vrajati’ as ‘falls into hell,’ and adds that hells have been described as located in the Nether Regions (that is why they are spoken of as ‘adhaḥ,’ ‘down below’).

Comparative notes by various authors:

(verses 7.45-53)

See Comparative notes for Verse 7.45.

VERSE 7.54

Section IV - Duties of the King

मौलान् शास्त्रविदः शूरान् लब्धलक्षान् कुलोद्भवान् ।
सचिवान् सप्त चाष्टौ वा प्रकुर्वीत परीक्षितान् ॥५४॥

maulān śāstravidaḥ śūrān labdhalakṣān kulodbhavān |
sacivān sapta cāṣṭau vā prakurvīta parīkṣitān ||54||

He shall appoint seven or eight ministers, with respectable status, versed in law, of heroic temperament, experienced in business, born of noble families, and thoroughly tested. — (54)

Medhātithi’s commentary (manubhāṣya):

‘Of respectable status’; — hereditary servants of the king, possessed of many children, and relations and much wealth, openly possessing vast numbers of cattle and landed property, inhabitants of the kingdom. ‘Mūla’ is status; and those possessed of status are ‘maula’.

‘Versed in law’; — ‘śāstra’ is law, ordinance; the law regulating the conduct of servants; hence the term indicates other qualifications also; such as — intelligent, of firm resolve, capable of much hard labour, clever, eloquent, strong, respectable, endowed with courage and energy, able to bear hardships, pure, liberal, equipped with estimable character, free from both tardiness and fickleness, loved by men, not prone to making enemies.

The term ‘śūra’, ‘of heroic temperament’, indicates one who, in his zeal for the king’s work, takes no account of his body, life, children or wealth, and also also not afraid of death, ever ready for battle, and though alone, he is ever ready to engage in a fight with many persons, — capable of striking hard, possessed of strength.

‘Experienced in business’; — this indicates the fact of their having seen much work; those who have actually fought with the sword, who have successfully accomplished their duties, who have had previous experience in ministerial work.

‘Born of noble families;’ — when people are moved by considerations of their noble family, they desist from improper acts.

‘Ministers’ — assistants.

These should always remain at the king’s side.

‘Seven or eight’ — This is a restrictive rule; fewer than these are likely to combine, — and this would render the king’s consultations one-sided. On the other hand, if they are too many, there is likely to be great diversities of opinion. Hence only seven or eight ministers are to be appointed.

‘Thoroughly tested” — This refers to tests relative to (a) virtue, (b) wealth, (c) love and (d) fear. For instance, (a) The Priest, under the pretext of having been reprimanded in his work, by the king, should approach each of the ministers with large presents sent through trustworthy messengers, with proposals purporting to bring about the king’s ruin, saying — ‘this proposal has been approved by all the ministers, how does it appear to you?’ — If the minister thus approached, repudiates the suggestion, he has been ‘tested with the test of virtue.’ — (b) The army — commander, under a similar pretext of having been reprimanded, may approach one of the ministers with large presents sent through trusted messengers, suggesting proposals for bringing about the king’s ruin, saying — ‘this has been approved by all ministers, what do you think of it?’ — If the minister should repudiate the suggestion, he becomes ‘tested with the test of wealth.’ (c) A female ascetic who is trusted in the king’s harem, shall approach each of the ministers, saying — ‘such and such a queen is in love with you and has made arrangements for meeting you.’ If the man repudiates the suggestion, he becomes ‘tested with the test of love.’ — (d) Some persons, urged by the king himself, should give out the rumour that ‘the king is being killed by certain ministers who have made a combination against him’; having heard this numour (rumour?), a trusted man in the priest’s employ should suggest to the ministers the following plan — ‘on hearing this rumour the king is going to punish you’; one of these men, having previously entered into the plan, should approach each of the ministers and urge them to activity; the ministers who repudiate this suggestion become ‘tested with the test of fear.’

Or, he shall appoint such ministers of finance as are ‘maula’ i.e., capable of collecting and guarding and rightly spending wealth; that is, those who collect wealth from the villages, and carefully keep and rightly spend what has been collected. The meaning thus is that he shall appoint such finance ministers as are experts in money-matters. — ‘Versed in lavs’ — the councillors that he appoints should be learned. — The army-commanders that he appoints should be ‘of heroic temperament.’ ‘Experienced’ and the other epithets qualify each of those mentioned above.

Some people hold that the ‘testing’ of ministers, in the manner related above, is not the right thing to do; they hold that such testing may actually produce unfaithful feelings in the minds of the ministers. Hence some other faithful woman (than the queen herself) should be employed (in the test); and the intrigue too should he proposed against some other person than the King himself. — (54)

Explanatory notes by Ganganath Jha:

‘Labdhalakṣān’ — ‘Experienced’ (Medhātithi); — ‘who fail not in their undertakings’ (Govindarāja, Nandana and Rāghavānanda); — ‘skilled in the use of weapons.’

‘Suparīkṣitān’ — ‘Tried through temptations’ (Medhātithi); — ‘tried as to incorruptibiliy’ (Nārāyaṇa); — ‘tested by spies’ (Govindarāja); — ‘bound to fidelity by oath, by touching the images of gods and such sacred objects (Kullūka and Rāghavānandà).

This verse is quoted in Mitākṣarā (on 1.311) to the effect that the king should appoint seven or eight councillors; — in Parāśaramādhava (Ācāra p. 405); — in Vīramitrodaya (Rājanīti, p. 177), which explains, ‘labdhalakṣān’ as ‘paridṛṣtakarmaṇaḥ’, ‘who have seen action’, i.e., ‘experienced’; — in Nītimayūkha (p. 61), which explains ‘labdhalakṣān’ as ‘clever’, — ‘maulān’ as ‘hereditary’; — and in Rājanītiratnākara (p. 9b).

Comparative notes by various authors:

(verses 7.54-55)

Viṣṇu (3.71). — ‘He shall appoint ministers to help him in his affairs, who are pure, free from covetousness, attentive and able.’

Yājñavalkya (1.310-311), — ‘He shall appoint ministers who are intelligent, hereditarily connected, firm and pure; with these he shall take counsel; as also with the Brāhmaṇa.’

Matsyapurāṇa (Vīramitrodaya-Rājanīti, p. 175). — ‘He shall appoint such assistants for himself as are brave, of noble family, strong, endowed with wealth, beauty, nobility and other good qualities, self-controlled, endowed with forgiveness, capable of hard work, courageous, knowing the duty, of sweet speech,

capable of offering salutary advice and devoted to their master.’

Viṣṇudharmottara (Vīramitrodaya-Rājanīti, p. 175). — ‘The attendants of the king shall he gentle, high-born, brave, equipped with knowledge, free from jealousy, not mean, pure and clever.’

Mahābhārata (Do.). — ‘The king should appoint only such ministers as are able and have been duly tested.’

Do. (Rājadharma) (Do., p. 177). — ‘The king shall honour that minister who is grateful, intelligent, free from meanness, firmly devoted to him, firm in his duty and firmly grounded in political science.’

Parāśara (Do., p. 178). — ‘The king shall appoint as ministers, counsellors, ambassadors, priests, judge and members of the assembly, — such people as may he devoted to his welfare and safety.’

Kātyāyana (Do.). — The king shall appoint as his minister a Brāhmaṇa, noble-born and devoted to the king, expert in his business.’

Śukranīti (2.106-109). — ‘The king shall examine his officers with reference to their work, companionship, merit, habits, family-relations and other things; and place confidence in those that are found trustworthy.’

Matsyapurāṇa (Vīramitrodaya-Rājanīti, p. 174). — ‘Immediately after his anointment, the king shall proceed to select his assistants; even an undertaking that is easy is difficult to he accomplished by a single man, especially when one who has no assistant; how much more is the work of the king which involves great issues! Therefore the king shall himself select assistants born of noble families.’

Arthaśāstra (p. 41). — ‘He shall appoint as ministers such persons as have been his fellow-students; as he is cognisant of the purity of their character, and hence has trust in them; so says Bharadvāja. This is denied by Viśālākṣa, who holds that as these men have sported with him, they are likely to disregard him; hence as ministers he should appoint such men as share his secrets; because such men have the same habits and defects as himself; as these men knowing that the king knows their secrets will never misbehave towards him. Parāśara holds that this objection is common to both; the king also knowing that they know his secrets, will follow them in their acts of commission and omission; hence he should appoint as ministers such persons as might have helped him in dangerous situations; because their attachment to him has been actually seen. Piśuna denies this; the feeling here mentioned is an emotion, it is not a lasting quality of the mind; hence the king should appoint as ministers such persons as have, in actual practice, been found to have acted in strict accordance with orders; because the quality of these will have been actually perceived. This again is denied by Kauṇapadanta; because even these men would not be endowed with other qualities necessary in ministers; therefore he shall appoint as ministers such persons as have been hereditary ministers, because the antecedents of such men are fully known; they will not abandon him even though ill-treated, because of the hereditary relationship. This is denied by Vātavyādhi, on the ground that such men would arrogate to themselves all the powers of the master and would behave as such; therefore be shall appoint as ministers such persons as are well-versed in political science and are strangers; strangers would regard the king as holding the rod of chastisement and would never misbehave. This is denied by Bāhudantī-putra, on the ground that a man, though possessing theoretical knowledge, if devoid of practical experience, would come to grief; hence he should appoint as ministers such persons as are endowed with the qualities of nobility of birth, wisdom, purity, bravery and loyalty. All these opinions are right, says Kauṭilya; but the real character of men can he ascertained only from actual experience; hence the king shall examine the ministerial capacity of the persons concerned, the exigencies of time and place, and also the nature of the work in hand and then appoint them as ministers, not as the chief minister.’

Kāmandaka (4.27-30). — ‘Upadhās are the means of testing honesty, and by these the king should test his dependants. A person who has got a good many friends to deter him from the paths of vice, who is not a foreigner by birth, who possesses noble lineage and character and great physical strength, who is eloquent and audacious in speech and is farsighted, energetic and ready-witted, who is free from obstinacy and fickleness and is faithful to his friends, who is painstaking and pure and truthful, who is blessed with equanimity, cheerfulness, patience, gravity and health, who is a master of all the arts, dexterous, prudent and retentive, unswerving in his devotion, and not prone to avenge the wrongs done to him by his sovereign, — such a person should be selected as the minister. Accuracy of memory, exclusive devotion to the ways and means and the Empire, grave consideration of the pros and cons of a question, unerring judgment, firmness, and observance of secrecy regarding all counsels, — these are the necessary qualifications of a minister.’

Do. (11.61). — ‘A mantra or counsel consists of five parts: supports, means to ends, divisions of time and place, averting of calamities and final success.’

Do. (11.74). — ‘Manu says twelve, Bṛhaspati says sixteen, and Uśanas says twenty, ministers should form a cabinet.’

Arthaśāstra (p. 48). — ‘Accompanied by the Chief Minister and the Domestic Priest, he shall, in the first instance, appoint ministers to unimportant posts, and there test them by means of tests.’

Do. (p. 76). — ‘The cabinet of ministers shall consist of twelve — say the followers of Manu; sixteen, say the followers of Bṛhaspati; twenty, say the followers of Uśanas; the number shall depend on the king’s own capacity, says Kauṭilya.’

VERSE 7.55

Section IV - Duties of the King

अपि यत् सुकरं कर्म तदप्येकेन दुष्करम् ।
विशेषतोऽसहायेन किं तु राज्यं महोदयम् ॥५५॥

api yat sukaraṃ karma tadapyekena duṣkaram |
viśeṣato'sahāyena kiṃ tu rājyaṃ mahodayam ||55||

Even an undertaking that is easy is difficult to be accomplished by a single man, specially by one who has no assistant; how much more so is the work of the king, which involves great issues! — (55)

Medhātithi’s commentary (manubhāṣya):

The ordinary household work of the householder, — such as looking after cattle, house and the rest — has been regarded as ‘easy’; the same man tends the cattle and milks the cow. But even so all this cannot be clone by a single man; it is still more difficult if the man happens to have no one to assist him; how can he take the cattle to graze, and at the same time look after his wife? As for ‘the work of the king’, it is an important undertaking and leads to important results; its proper accomplishment bears important fruits, and important results accrue to the man who fulfills it. But a single man cannot be expected to know all the six ‘means of success’. Hence it it necessary for the king to appoint to the several departments of state trusted assistants, who are possessed of qualifications similar to those of the king himself. — (55)

Explanatory notes by Ganganath Jha:

This verse is quoted in Virāmitrodaya (Rājanīti, p. 177); — and in Virāmitrodaya (Lakṣaṇa, p. 215).

Comparative notes by various authors:

(verses 7.54-55)

See Comparative notes for Verse 7.54.

VERSE 7.56

Section IV - Duties of the King

तैः सार्धं चिन्तयेन्नित्यं सामान्यं सन्धिविग्रहम् ।
स्थानं समुदयं गुप्तिं लब्धप्रशमनानि च ॥५६॥

taiḥ sārdhaṃ cintayennityaṃ sāmānyaṃ sandhivigraham |
sthānaṃ samudayaṃ guptiṃ labdhapraśamanāni ca ||56||

With these he shall always discuss all ordinary business relating to peace and war, as also the ‘state’, the sources of revenue, the means of protection, and the consolidation of what has been acquired. — (56)

Medhātithi’s commentary (manubhāṣya):

With the aforesaid councillors and finance-ministers he shall discuss the ‘ordinary business’ — what may not be of a very confidential nature — ‘relating to peace and war’; he shall consider peace and war; he shall consider the pros and cons of both sides of the question as to whether on a certain occasion peace or war would be the right course to adopt. But the actual decision he should take himself; so that he may not appear to have been guided by other persons.

He should also discuss the ‘state’; this is fourfold, consisting of Army, Treasure, City and Kingdom. Of these the ‘Army’ consists in Elephants, Horses, Chariots and Footsoldiers; and he shall discuss such things relating to them as maintenance, protection, and the appointment of proper commanders as regards the Treasury, it should abound in gold and silver in large quantities, which should not be spent; the cardinal parts of the Treasury shall never be expended; nor should payments to servants be delayed; — as regards the Kingdom, which is the same as country, it should be maintained intact against encroachment by others, by the careful looking after of rivers and trees and cattle, the building of protective works against possible attacks by enemies; it should not be allowed to depend entirely on rain, and in times of distress special penalties and taxes shall be levied (?); — as regards the City, the methods of guarding it are going to be described under 7.75.

Or, ‘sthāna’, ‘state’, may mean not deviating from its own position.

Similarly he shall also discuss the ‘sources of revenue’ — such as agriculture, pastures, barriers, trade, fines and so forth.

‘Means of protection’, — of the king’s own kingdom, as going to be described later on.

‘Consolidation of what has been acquired’; — the honouring of learned and pious men and the continuance of bounties to them, the granting of fresh bounties; and the removal of all restraints; merciful treatment of the poor and the diseased; the instituting of fresh public sports and rejoicings and the continnance (continuance?) of those already in vogue. He shall put a stop to all abuses regarding the Treasury and judicial procedure, and introduce sounder methods of work. If there is some improper act done by others he shall stop it; but he shall not interfere with any righteons (righteous?) act that may be done by others.

In this manner ‘State’ and the rest shall be discussed. — (56).

Explanatory notes by Ganganath Jha:

‘Sthānam’ — ‘Halting’ (Nandana). — Buhler misrepresents Medhātithi when he attributes to him the alternative explanation of sthāna as ‘loss of his Kingdom’, in reality Medhātithi says ‘stability of the Kingdom’ as rightly understood by Hopkins.

This verse is quoted in Virāmitrodaya (Rājanīti, p. 316), which adds the following notes: — Taiḥ, ‘with the said councillors, — chintayet, ‘the. King should deliberate,’ — sandhiḥ, ‘alliances’ — vigrahaḥ, ‘declaration of war’, — sthānam, ‘consisting of the four factors of the army, treasury, capital city and Kingdom’, — ‘samudayaḥ,’ ‘agriculture, pastures, outposts, traders, cattle, customs, fines and so forth,’ — guptiḥ, protection of his Kingdom, — labdhapraśamanam, ‘bestowing of honours and gifts upon temples, hermitages and learned men’; — the meaning of the phrase sāmānyam sandhivigraham is that he should discuss questions of peace and war in general, the detailed and specific details being discussed in connection with the ‘ṣāḍguṇya.’

It is quoted also in Parāśaramādhava (Ācāra, p. 405) and in Rājanītiratnākara; — (p. 10b).

Comparative notes by various authors:

Yājñavalkya (1-311). — ‘With the ministers the king shall take counsel; specially with the Brāhmaṇa.’

Arthaśāstra (p. 45). — ‘The following are the qualities of the Chief Minister: He should have been born and bred in the kingdom, of noble birth, having a large family, versed in the arts, with keen powers of perception, intelligent, possessed of a retentive memory, clever, eloquent, bold, quick-witted, endowed with courage and influence, capable of hard work, pure, sympathetic, firmly loyal, equipped with character, strength, health and patience, devoid of haughtiness and fickleness, of prepossessing appearance and never likely to create enmities. The king shall therefore examine the land of birth and family of the candidates for Chief Ministership; the exact amount of their knowledge of arts and sciences he shall find out from other persons learned in the same; their intelligence, memory and cleverness he shall find out from actual experience; eloquence he shall find out from his conversations; as also lowness and quickness of wit; courage and influence shall be found out in times of trouble; purity, sympathy and loyalty from actual experience; character, strength, health and patience from their neighbours; and prepossessing appearance from direct perception.’

Arthaśāstra (p. 71). — ‘All operations should be preceded by due discussion among Ministers.’

Kāmandaka (13.23). — ‘The functions of the Prakritimaṇḍala are the following: — To hold counsels, to secure the results of counsels, to direct others to perform their functions, to ascertain the effects of coming events, to look after income and expenditure, to administer justice, to subjugate enemies, to avert threatening evils and calamities, to protect the kingdom, — those are the functions of the minister. But the minister who is subject to the vyasanas fails in all this.’

VERSE 7.57

Section IV - Duties of the King

तेषां स्वं स्वमभिप्रायमुपलभ्य पृथक् पृथक् ।
समस्तानां च कार्येषु विदध्याद्द् हितमात्मनः ॥५७॥

teṣāṃ svaṃ svamabhiprāyamupalabhya pṛthak pṛthak |
samastānāṃ ca kāryeṣu vidadhyādd hitamātmanaḥ ||57||

Having ascertained the opinion of each of the ministers individually and also collectively, he shall, in his affairs, do what is beneficial to himself. — (57)

Medhātithi’s commentary (manubhāṣya):

Having ascertained in private the opinion of each of them — the opinion entertained by them in his heart of hearts — also ‘collectively’; — he shall do this because some people are shy in assemblies, but bold in private, while others are more fit in assemblies; hence he shall question the ministers collectively also.

After that he shall do whatever appears to him to be most proper — ‘beneficial to himself’; be it what one of the ministers themselves may have advised, and had not been opposed by others; and hence indicated to be free from objections. — (57)

Explanatory notes by Ganganath Jha:

This verse is quoted in Vīramitrodaya (Rājanīti, p. 178); — in Parāśaramādhava‘ (Ācāra, p. 406); — and in Nītimayūkha (p. 53).

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