He did not dare to meethis uncle. (Kruisinga)

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§ 7. To have + Infinitive.

The modal expression to have + Infinitive is used in three tense forms: the Present Indefinite, the Past Indefinite and the Future In­definite.

Ihave to get up at six every day

When water was rushing through the tents and everybodyhad to sleep in wet blankets, it was treated as a joke. (Prichard)

 Ishall have to take the pupils into the hills, as usual, and see them settled there. (Voynich)

The negative and interrogative forms of this modal expression are formed with the help of the auxiliary do.

Did youhave to walk all the way home?

Idid not have to walk, I took a tram.

Only the Indefinite Infinitive Active and Passive can be used in this modal expression.

I had imagined weshould have to hold a large house-party for the occasion. (Du Maurier)

I wouldn't look through the letters — disappointmenthad to be postponed, hope kept alive as long as possible. (Greene)

To have + Infinitive expresses an obligation or necessity arising out of circumstances. To have + Infinitive is more impersonal than must and tends to lack the implication that the speaker is in authority. Its meaningis close to that of to be obliged. Itis often rendered inRussianby приходится, должен, вынужден.

Bing knew that if Willoughby demanded it, hehad to give the report. (Heym) — Бинг знал, что, если Уиллоуби этого требует, он должен дать отчет

And if my father was fighting drunk sometimes he wouldn't let us into the house so that wehad to stay out all night- (Walsh) — И если мой отец в пьяном виде дрался, он иногда не впускал нас в дом, так что нам приходилось ночевать на улице.

Though both the modal expressions to be + Infinitive and to have + Infinitive express a shade of obligation or necessity, there is a great dif­ference in their meaning.

Compare:

As I was to be there at 5 sharp (part of an arrangement), I had to take a taxi (necessity arising out of this arrangement). — Так как я должен был быть там ровно в пять, мне пришлось взять такси.

In colloquial English and especially in American English have got + Infinitive is often used in the same meaning as have + Infinitive.

This modal expression is used in the Present Indefinite tense only.

Okay, we'll beat 'em to it. Dick, we've got to keep awake, we've got to watch things and be ready. (Lindsay)

The negative and interrogative forms are formed without any auxiliary.

Have you got to do all this work yourself?

 No, I have not got to work so much.

There is a tendency in Modern English to use got + Infinitive in the same meaning.

You can smile away till you split your cheeks, but you still got to do a day's work to earn a day's wages, and apples don't grow on monkey-trees. (Lindsay)

N o t e l. Have to and have got to are used in sarcastic utterances like those illustrated for must (§ 4).

Do you have to make that noise when you eat?

N o t e 2. Pay special attention to the difference between I have something to tell you and I have to tell you something. In the latter case the speaker expresses the necessity of telling something to somebody, whereas in the former the verb to have preserves to a certain extent its meaning of posses­sion and the speaker merely states that he has something which he either wants or must communicate to somebody. The difference in word order is caused by the difference in the meaning of the verb to have. In the first case it is not a modal verb, thus, have is a simple predicate, something is a direct object and the infinitive is an attribute. In the second sentence hav_e to tell is a modal expression, so it is a compound verbal modal predicate and something is an object to the infinitive.

§ 8. Shall

Shall is never a purely modal verb. It always combines its modal meaning with the function of an auxiliary expressing futurity.

As a rule shall as a modal verb is not translated into Russian, its meaning is rendered by emphatic intonation.

1.Shall expresses volition with the first person subject in formal style.

We shall uphold the wishes of the people. — Мы поддержим желания народа.

2.In interrogative sentences shall is used with the first and third persons to inquire after the wish of the person addressed.

Shall I shut the door, madam? (Dickens) (Do you want me to shut the door?) — Закрыть дверь, сударыня?

Shall he go there? (Do you want him to go there?) — Идти ему туда?

It is also used for making suggestions about shared activities.

What shall we do this evening? Shall we go to the theatre?

N o t e. It is only in such questions that shall cannot be regularly replaced by will.

3.Compulsion or strict order.

In this meaning it is always used with the second and third persons and has a strong stress.

P a u I a. I've got to tell Mr. Tanqueray.

H u g h. By God, youshall do nothing of the sort. (Pinero)

П а у л а. Я должна сказать мистеру Тэнкери.

Хью. Клянусь богом, вы этого не сделаете.

"Sheshall go off tomorrow, the little artful creature," said Mrs

Sedley, with great energy. (Thackeray) — «Она уедет завтра же

эта маленькая интриганка», — энергично заявила миссис

Се дли.

4.Threat or warning.

In this meaning it is also used with the second and third persons _and with a weak stress.

"That's the last time!" she cried. "You shall never see me again!" (Maugham) — «Это конец! — закричала она. — Вы никогда меня больше не увидите!»

You shall repent of this neglect of duty, Mr. Gummer. (Dick­ens) — Вы еще раскаетесь в том, что пренебрегаете долгом, мистер Гаммер.

5.Promise.

It is also used with the second and third persons and with a weak stress.

Don't be afraid, Jane, I saw it was an accident. You shall not be punished. (Ch. Bronte) — He бойся, Джейн, я видела, что это произошло случайно. Тебя не накажут. I shall make you happy, see if I don't. You shall do what you like, spend what you like. (Thackeray) — Я сделаю вас счастливой, вот увидите. Вы будете делать что хотите и тратить сколько хотите.

In the latter three cases shall sounds archaic and 'authoritarian' in tone.

6.A restricted use of shall with the third person occurs in legal or quasi-legal discourse, in stipulating regulations or legal requirements. Here shall is close in meaning to must.

The vendor shall maintain the equipment in good repair. — Про­давцу надлежит поддерживать оборудование в хорошем состоянии.

§ 9. Will.

Will is hardly ever a purely modal verb. It generally combines its fiiodal meaning with the function of an auxiliary expressing futurity.

The modal verb will expresses volition, intention on the part of the ^sPeaker, or insistence. 1. Volition, intention.

In most eases this meaning is rendered in Russian by emphatic 'donation, but sometimes the verb хотеть is used. It is used with all Arsons but mostly with the first person.

"What is this? Who is this? Turn this man out. Clear the office!" cried Mr. Fang. "I will speak," cried the man. "I will not be turned out..." (Dickens) — «Что это? Кто это? Выставьте этого чело- века за дверь! Очистите помещение!» — закричал мистер Фанг. «Нет, я буду говорить! — крикнул человек. — Меня не выставят!»

Besides, since happiness is irrevocably denied me, I have a right to get pleasure out of life: and I will get it, cost what it may (E. Bront§) — Кроме того, раз счастье для меня невозможно я вправе получать от жизни удовольствия; и я буду получать их, чего бы это ни стоило.

Tell Mr. Osborne it is a cowardly letter, sir, a cowardly letter —I will not answer it. (Thackeray) — Скажите мистеру Осборну, что это трусливое письмо, сэр, трусливое; я на него не отвечу.

Very often will is used after the conjunction if in conditional clauses where it retains its modal meaning, that of volition.

You may laugh if you will but I was sure I should see her there. (E. Bronte) — Можете смеяться, если хотите, но я был уверен, что встречу ее там.

The modal verb will is used in polite requests. Will you have a cup of tea?

Will you give me a piece of bread, for I am very hungry? (Ch. ВгоМё)

2. Persistence referring to the present or to the future.

"Don't tell me." "But I will tell you," repeated Sikes. (Dickens) - «Не говорите мне про это». «А я все равно скажу», — повторил Сайке.

She begins to act very strangely. She will not speak, she will not eat; finally she dies. (Maugham) — Она начинает вести себя очень странно. Она не желает говорить, она не желает есть, наконец, она умирает.

It is used in speaking about habits.

She will listen to music, alone in her room, for hours.

It is also used in speaking about lifeless things when the speaker is annoyed at something and speaks about a thing or a phenomenon of nature as if it possessed a will of its own (there is an element of per­sonification here).

It's no use trying to open the door, it will not open. — Нечего стараться открыть эту дверь — она все равно не откроется.

3. Prediction referring to the present or to no particular time (in timeless statements).

That'll be the postman (on hearing the doorbell ring). Oil will float on water.

§ 10. Would.

Would was originally the past tense of will in the same way as should was the past tense of shall. But while the latter has acquired new shades of meaning, would has preserved those of will. Thus it expresses volition, persistence referring to the past.

1.Volition.

In this meaning it is mostly used in negative sentences.

She was going away and would not say where she was going. (Dreiser) — Она уезжала и не хотела сказать, куда едет.

2.Persistence.

I asked him not to bang the door, but he would do it. — Я просил его на хлопать дверью, а он все продолжал хлопать. Several times Eckerman tried to get away, but Goethe would not let him go. (Maugham) — Несколько раз Эккерман пытался уйти, но Гёте ни за что не отпускал его.

Would is used to describe things that often happened in the past. It is very close to used to in these cases, but it is more formal and needs to be associated with a time indicator.

When we were children, we lived by the sea. In summer, if the weather was fine, we would all get up early and go for a swim.

It is also used in speaking about lifeless things in the same way as (see § 9), but in this use would is more common than will.

... and that was all he could see, for the sedan doors wouldn't open and the blinds wouldn't pull up. (Dickens) — ... и это бы­ло все, что ему было видно, ибо двери портшеза никак не открывались и занавеси никак не поднимались.

Would you open the door for me, please?

Would you like to have a sandwich?

It is more polite than will in this meaning.

§11. Dare.

Dare means 4o have the courage (or impertinence) to do some­thing'. In the negative it denotes the lack of courage to do something.

"How dare you ask the little Kelveys into the courtyard," said her cold, furious voice. (Mansfield)

The verb dare as well as need has some peculiarities which make it different from other modal verbs.

It is used both as a normal verb (taking the auxiliary do in the in­terrogative and negative forms, in the third person singular and the Го-Infinitive) and as an anomalous verb (without any auxiliary in its interrogative and negative forms, without in the third person singular and without the particle to before the infinitive which follows it). Dare has two forms — dare for the Present and dared for the Past.

Did he dare to strike me when I was down? (E. Bronte)

How dare you go out by yourself after the orders I gave you?(Shaw)

You dare address me in that tone! (Shaw)

Sometimes dare takes the auxiliary but is followed by the bare infinitive. This is more typical of spoken English.

You know you didn't dare give the order to charge the bridge until you saw us on the other side. (Shaw)

Dare is mostly used in interrogative and negative sentences. How­ever, we often come across I dare say which has become a stock phrase and acquired a new meaning “I  suppose'. Dare is used only with the Indefinite Infinitive.

§ 12. Need.

Need expresses necessity. It is mostly used in negative and inter­rogative sentences.

You needn't be in such a fright. Take my arm. (Shaw) — He надо так бояться. Возьмите меня под руку.

Note. When need is used in the meaning of'to be in want of it is treated as a normal verb.

He needs a new pair of shoes.

Need has only one tense form — the Present. In the same way as dare, need is used as a normal and as an anomalous verb.

One need to be careful.(Zandvoort)

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