They werethus introduced by Holly.(Galsworthy)

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Tenses in the Active Voice

The Indefinite Form

The Indefinite form merely shows that the action takes place in the present, past or future. The form of the verb gives no indication as to its duration or completion.

The Present Indefinite

§ 1. The formation of the Present Indefinite.

1. The Present Indefinite is formed from the infinitive without the particle to.

In the third person singular the ending is added. After a sibilant represented in spelling by s, ss, ch, sh, tch, x, z and after the vowel o, -es is added: he writes, he reads, he speaks; he passes, he pushes, he watches, he teaches; he goes, he does [dAz].

2. The pronunciation of the ending-^ (-es) depends on the sound preceding it. It is pronounced as:

[iz] after the sibilants [s], [z], [ʃ], [tʃ], [dʒ]: passes ['pa:siz], pushes ['puʃiz], teaches ['ti;tʃiz] Judges ['dʒʌdʒiz];

[z] after voiced non-sibilants and vowels: reads [ri:dz], lives [livz], sees [si:z];

[s] after voiceless non-sibilants: works [w3:ks], wants [wonts].

3. In the third person singular we find the following orthographical change:

A final y is changed into i if it is preceded by a consonant and then

is added: to study — he studies; to try — he tries.

After a vowel y is kept unchanged: to play — he plays; to stay — he stays.

4. The interrogative and the negative forms are formed by means of the Present Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to do and the infinitive of the notional verb without the particle to.

Affirmative

Interrogative

Negative

I work

He works

She works

We work

You work

They work

Do I work?

Does he work?

 Does she work?

 Do we work?

Do you work?

Do they work?

I  do not work

He does not work

She does not work

We do not work

You do not work

They do not work

1. The contracted negative forms are:

I don't work

He doesn't work

They don't work

2. The negative-interrogative forms are:

Do you not work?

Don't you work?

Does he not work?

Doesn't he work?

§ 2. The use of the Present Indefinite.

The Present Indefinite is used to denote:

1.Customary, repeated actions. This is its most characteristic use.

The Browns go to the seaside every summer.

The repeated character of the action is often shown by adverbials such as every day, often, usually, etc.

2.Actions and states characterizing a given person.

She has many accomplishments: she sings and plays the piano beautifully.

3.Universal truths, something which is eternally true.

Magnet attracts iron.

The earth rotates round its axis.

4.Actions going on at the present moment (with verbs not used in the Continuous form).

I see George in the street. Tell him to come in.

I hear somebody knock. Go and open the door.

The list of verbs which are normally not used in the Continuous form (but there are exceptions) is as follows: want, prefer; like, love, hate, belong, see, hear; know, realize, believe, suppose, mean, understand, remember, forget, seem, have (when the meaning is 'possess'), think (when the meaning is 'believe').

(For detailed treatment see § 16.)

1. A future action:

(a) in adverbial clauses of time and condition after the conjunc­tions when, till, until, before, after; as soon as, as long as,  if unless, on condition that, provided.

... Robert, will you mend me a pen or two before you go? (Ch. Brontл)

I promise not to try to see Robert again till he asks for me. (Ch. Brontл)

N o t e. It should be borne in mind that this use of the Present Indefi­nite occurs only in adverbial clauses of time and condition. In object and attributive clauses introduced by when the Future Indefinite is used.

I wonder when he will give us an answer.

We are impatiently awaiting the day when our friends will return from their long journey.

(b) with verbs of motion, such as to go, to come, to leave etc. The future action is regarded as something fixed.

The train leaves at 10 tomorrow.

We find the same phenomenon in Russian.

Он уезжает завтра.

В следующее воскресенье мы идем в театр.

The Past Indefinite

§ 3. The formation of the Past Indefinite.

1. The Past Indefinite is formed by adding -ed or -d to the stem (regular verbs), or by changing the root vowel, or in some other ways (irregular verbs).

(For detailed treatment see The Verb, § 3.)

2. The interrogative and the negative forms are formed by means of the Past Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to do (did) and the infinitive of the notional verb without the particle to.

Affirmative

Interrogative

Negative

I worked (wrote)

He worked (wrote)

She worked (wrote)

We worked (wrote)

You worked (wrote)

They worked (wrote)

Did I work (write)?

Did he work (write)?

 Did she work (write)?

 Did we work (write)?

 Did you work (write)?

 Did they work (write)?

I did not work (write)

He did not work (write)

She did not work (write)

We did not work (write)

You did not work (write)

 They did not work (write)

3. The contracted negative forms are:

I didn't work She didn't work

4. The negative-interrogative forms are:

Did you not work? Didn't you work?

§ 4. The use of the Past Indefinite.

The Past Indefinite denotes an action performed within a period of time which is already over. The action is cut off from the present. The time of the action may be indicated by adverbials of past time, such as yesterday, a week ago, last year, etc.

The sun came out a moment ago.

Miss Helstone stayed the whole evening. (Ch. Bronte)

Ellean breakfasted two hours ago, and then went out walking with the dog (Pinero)

The Past Indefinite can correspond to the Russian past perfective and past imperfective (совершенный и несовершенный вид).

He smoked a cigarette and left the room (выкурил).

 He smoked in silence for a few minutes (курил).

The translation depends on the context and the lexical character of the verb.

The Past Indefinite is used to denote:

(a)an action performed in the past.

We entered Farmer Ridley's meadow in silence. (Marryat)

(b)a succession of past actions.

In this case the Past Indefinite is rendered in Russian by the past perfective.

He threw down his spade and entered the house. (Ch. Bronte) — Он бросил лопату и вошел в дом.

(с)repeated actions in the past.

In this case the Past Indefinite is rendered in Russian by the past imperfective.

He made an entry in his diary every night. (Bennett) — Каждый вечер он делал запись в дневнике.

Note. Repeated actions in the past which no longer happen can be expressed by used to + Infinitive and would + Infinitive. Used to is more colloquial and would is more literary.

Every afternoon, when the children came from school, they used to go and play in the Giant's garden. (Wilde)

When fits of melancholy came upon him, he would spend all days locked in his room. (E. Bronte)

Sometimes used to does not denote repeated actions, but actions charac­terizing a person or actions or states which lasted a long time.

The Reed used to like the rain. (Wilde)

There used to be an old oak-tree near the house.

The interrogative form is did... use to?, the negative form is didn't use to/ used not to.

Did you use to read a lot when you were a child?

John didn't use to go out very often until he met Val.

The Future Indefinite

§ 5. The formation of the Future Indefinite.

1. The Future Indefinite is formed by means of the auxiliary verbs shall and will and the infinitive without to of the notional verb.

Shall is used for the first person singular and plural. In British English prescriptive tradition forbids will as a future auxiliary with the first person singular and plural, but this tradition is old-fashioned and is nowadays widely ignored. It is recommended though to use shall, in preference to will, with the first person in formal style.

Will is used for the first, second and the third person singular and plural. In informal style the contracted form ‘ll  is used for all the persons. In American English only will is used with all the persons.

2. In the interrogative form the auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.

In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the auxiliary verb. Shall is still used in British English in questions with the first person singular and plural.

What shall I wear to the party?

 I'll drive, shall I?

Affirmative

Interrogative

Negative

I shall/will work

He will work

She will work

We shall/will work

You will work

They will work

Shall/Will I work?

 Will he work?

Will she work?

Shall/Will we work?

 Will you work?

Will they work?

I shall/will not work

He will not work

She will not work

 We shall/will not work

 You will not work

They will not work

3. The contracted affirmative forms are:

I'll work

You'll work

The contracted negative forms are:

I shan't [ʃa:nt] work

He won't [wəunt] work

4. The negative-interrogative forms are:

Shall we not work?

Shan't we work?

Will he not work?

Won't he work?

§ 6. The use of the Future Indefinite.

The Future Indefinite is used to denote a future action.

It will be much cooler up at Fiesole. (Voynich)

N o t e. To denote a future action the word combinations to be going + Infinitive, to be about + Infinitive, and to be on the point of + Gerund are often used.

To be going to, to be about to, to be on the point of denote an action which is expected to take place in the nearest future. To be going to is colloquial, to be on the point of is literary.

This is going to be a cheerful evening. (Shaw)

The runners are about to start.

The Future Indefinite is rendered in Russian by the future perfec­tive and imperfective.

I will read ten chapters tomorrow. — Завтра я прочту десять глав.

I will read the whole day tomorrow. — Завтра я буду читать целый день.

The Future Indefinite in the Past

§ 7. The formation of the Future Indefinite in the Past.

1. The Future Indefinite in the Past is formed by means of the auxiliary verbs should and would and the infinitive without to of the notional verb.

Should is used for the first person singular and plural (only in Brit­ish English).

Would is used for the first, second and the third person singular and plural.

2. In the interrogative form the auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.

In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the auxiliary verb.

Affirmative

Interrogative

Negative

I should/would work

He would work

She would work

We should/would work

 You would work

 They would work

Should/Would I work? Would he work?

Would she work? Should/Would we work? Would you work?

 Would they work?

I should/would not work

He would not work

She would not work

 We should/would not work You would not work

They would not work

3. The contracted affirmative forms are:

I'd work

He'd work

The contracted negative forms are:

I shouldn't work

He wouldn't work

4. The negative-interrogative forms are:

Should I not work? Shouldn't I work?

Would he not work? Wouldn't he work?

§ 8. The use of the Future Indefinite in the Past.

The Future Indefinite in the Past denotes an action which was future from the point of view of the past.

I was sure he would agree with me.

(For detailed treatment see Chapter XVI11.)

The Continuous Form

The Continuous form denotes an action in progress at the present moment or at a given moment in the past or future. It is formed by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the required tense and Participle I of the notional verb.

The Present Continuous

§ 9. The formation of the Present Continuous.

1. The Present Continuous is formed by means of the Present In­definite of the auxiliary verb to be and Participle I of the notional verb. (On the formation of Participle I see Chapter VIII, § 3.)

2. In the interrogative form the auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.

In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the auxiliary verb.

Affirmative

Interrogative

Negative

I am reading

He is reading

She is reading

We are reading

You are reading

They are reading

Am I reading?

Is he reading?

Is she reading?

 Are we reading?

 Are you reading?

Are they reading?

I am not reading

He is not reading

She is not reading

We are not reading

 You are not reading

They are not reading

3.The contracted affirmative forms are:

I'm reading

She's reading

We're reading

The contracted negative forms are:

She isn't reading

We aren't reading

4.The negative-interrogative forms are:

Am I not reading?

Is she not reading?

 Isn't she reading?

Are you not reading?

Aren't you reading?

§10. The use of the Present Continuous.

I. The Present Continuous is used to denote an action going on at the present moment. It should be borne in mind that the term 'present moment' is not limited to the actual moment of speaking. The Present Continuous is used when in Russian we can say сейчас (теперь), which refers not only to the moment of speaking, but has a wider meaning.

"My dear," said Jolyon with gentle exasperation, "you are talking nonsense." (Galsworthy)

Robert is just now speaking to my uncle and they are shaking hands. (Ch Bronte)

How is Dartie behaving now? (Galsworthy) — Как Дарти ведет себя сейчас?

Katya is in Britain for three months. She is learning English.

Note. The Present Indefinite, not the Present Continuous, is used to denote actions going on at the present moment when the fact is important and not the process.

He did such a mean thing and you defend him.

Why don't you read your examples?

Why do you look at me as if you had never seen me?

Why don't you answer? Good God, John, what has happened? (Thackeray)

The Present Continuous can be used to denote a certain state or quality peculiar to the person at a given moment.

You are being a nuisance.

"You are being bitter," said Karen. (Heym)

2.When there are two actions one of which is in progress and the other is a habitual action, the first is expressed by the Present Continu­ous and the second by the Present Indefinite.

You never open your lips while you are painting. (Wilde)

I never talk while I am working. (Wilde)

3.The Present Continuous is used when people are talking about their future arrangements. The Future Indefinite is not used in such cases.

I'm leaving tonight. (Abrahams)

He is coming to us tomorrow to stop till next month. (Collins)

I'm playing golf tomorrow.

What are you doing tonight?

If not personal arrangements, but timetables, programmes, etc. are described, the Present Indefinite should be used:

What time does the film begin?

The train leaves Bracknell at 10.03 and arrives in London at 11.05.

4.The Present Continuous is used to express a continual process. In this case the adverbs always, constantly, ever are used.

The earth is always moving.

 The sun is ever shining.

5.The Present Continuous is used to express an action thought of as a continual process (with the adverbs always, ever; constantly). The action is represented as going on without any interval.

She is always grumbling.

"She is constantly thinking of you," I said. (Wells)

The difference between case 4 and case 5 is as follows: what is said in No. 4 is literally true, whereas in No. 5 there is an element of exag­geration, because the action in this case cannot go on without intervals. The exaggeration is generally called forth by emotion.

The Past Continuous

§11. The formation of the Past Continuous.

The Past Continuous is formed by means of the Past Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to be and Participle I of the notional verb.

In the interrogative form the auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.

In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the auxiliary verb.

Affirmative

Interrogative

Negative

I was reading

He was reading

 She was reading

We were reading

You were reading

They were reading

Was I reading?

Was he reading?

Was she reading?

Were we reading ?

Were you reading?

Were they reading?

I was not reading

He was not reading

She was not reading

We were not reading

You were not reading

They were not reading

The contracted negative forms are:

He wasn't reading

They weren't reading

The negative-interrogative forms are:

Was he not reading?

Wasn't he reading?

Were they not reading?

Weren't they reading?

§ 12. The use of the Past Continuous.

1. The Past Continuous is used to denote an action which was going on at a definite moment in the past.

It was twelve and he was still sitting, when the presence of Cowperwood was announced. (Dreiser)

The definite moment is indicated either by another past ac­tion expressed by a verb in the Past Indefinite or by an adverbial phrase.

When I returned, she was sweeping the floor. (Bennett)

At midnight he was still working, though he was feeling ill and was longing to go to bed.

The definite moment is often not expressed, but understood from the situation.

He did not notice what was going on around him — he was reading.

The Past Continuous is used to denote a certain state or quality peculiar to the person at a given moment in the past.

He knew he was being scientific and restrained. (Cronin)

2. The Past Continuous or the Past Indefinite is often used after such phrases as the whole day, all day long.

They were working in the garden all day long. They worked in the garden all day long.

3. The Past Continuous is used to denote an action thought of as a continual process. In this case the adverbs always, ever; constantly are used. The Past Continuous in this use is often to be found in emotional speech.

She was constantly complaining of being lonely. (Shaw)

He was never able to look after his flowers at all, for his friend, the Miller, was always coming round and sending him off on long errands or getting him to help on the mill. (Wilde)

The Past Continuous is rendered in Russian by the past imperfective.

When I came home, she was cooking dinner. — Когда я вер­нулся, она готовила обед.

The Future Continuous

§13. The formation of the Future Continuous.

1. The Future Continuous is formed by means of the Future Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to be and Participle I of the notional verb.

2. In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.

In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary verb.

Affirmative

Interrogative

I shall/will be reading

He will be reading

She will be reading

We shall/will be reading

You will be reading

They will be reading

Shall/Will I be reading?

Will he be reading?

Will she be reading?

Shall/Will we be reading?

Will you be reading?

 Will they be reading

Negative

I shall/will not be reading

He will not be reading

She will not be reading

We shall/will not be reading

You will not be reading

They will not be reading

3. The contracted affirmative forms are:

I'll be reading

He'll be reading

The contracted negative forms are:

I shan't be reading

He won't be reading

4. The negative-interrogative forms are:

Shall I not be reading?

Shan't I be reading?

Will he not be reading?

Won't he be reading?

§ 14. The use of the Future Continuous.

1. The Future Continuous is used to denote an action which will be going on at a definite moment in the future.

I wonder whether we shall ever arrive at a decision. I am sure the next time you call we shall still be wavering. (Collins)

The definite moment is indicated either by another future ac­tion expressed by a verb in the Present Indefinite or by an adverbial phrase.

I'll already be working when you return.

At 12 o'clock I'll still be working.

The definite moment is often not expressed, but is understood from the situation.

I am sure you won't be able to speak to him, he will be working.

2. The Future Continuous can have a modal colouring: it can denote an action which is sure to take place, often independently of the will of the speaker and the doer of the action.

I feel I shall be asking you the same question tomorrow.

But my dear Ann Veronica, you will be getting into debt. (Wells)

The Future Continuous also denotes an action which is already planned or arranged. In this respect is it similar to the corresponding usage of the Present Continuous Tense (§ 10. 3).

I'll be going out (I'm going out) later. Do you want anything?

The Future Continuous in the Past

§15. The formation of the Future Continuous in the Past.

1. The Future Continuous in the Past is formed by means of the Future Indefinite in the Past of the auxiliary verb to be and Participle I of the notional verb.

2. In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.

In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary verb.

Affirmative

Interrogative

I should/would be reading

He would be reading

She would be reading

We should/would be reading

You would be reading

They would be reading

Should/Would I be reading?

 Would he be reading?

Would she be reading?

Should/Would we be reading?

Would you be reading?

Would they be reading?

Negative

I should/would not be reading

He would not be reading

She would not be reading

We should/would not be reading

You would not be reading

They would not be reading

3. The contracted affirmative forms are:

I'd be reading

He'd be reading

The contracted negative forms are:

I shouldn't be reading

He wouldn't be reading

4. The negative-interrogative forms are:

Should I not be reading?

Shouldn't I be reading?

Would he not be reading?

Wouldn't he be reading?

§16. The use of the Future Continuous in the Past.

The Future Continuous in the Past denotes an action going on at a definite moment which was future from the point of view of the past.

I felt sure they would be discussing the same problem when I called.

(For detailed treatment see Chapter XVIII.)

Note l. Influence of the lexical character of the verb on the use of the Indefinite and the Continuous form.

To express a process with terminative verbs the Continuous form alone is possible.

At that moment he was unlocking the door. (Oppenheim) — В этот момент он отпирал дверь.

With the Indefinite form the meaning would be quite different: the ac­tion would be represented as completed.

At that moment he unlocked the door. — В этот момент он отпер дверь.

То express a process with non-terminative verbs the Continuous form is mostly used, though the Indefinite form is also found, especially with such verbs as to sit, to stand, to lie, because these verbs express a state rather than a process.

When I saw her, she lay motionless on the sofa.

With the adverbial modifier the whole day yesterday (tomorrow) both the Indefinite and the Continuous form of non-terminative verbs can be used to denote a process.

I was so tired I slept (was sleeping) the whole day yester­day.

The meaning is the same, only with the Continuous form the process is expressed more emphatically.

Note 2. The use of the Past Indefinite and the Past Continuous in complex sentences with as and while.

The use of the Past Indefinite and the Past Continuous in complex sentences with as and while, when there are two actions going on at the same time, largely depends on the lexical character of the verb.

(1) If both the verbs are terminative, they are generally used in the Past Continuous.

She was arranging the books on the shelf while I was sweep­ing the floor.

(2) If one of them is terminative and the other non-terminative, the termi­native verb must be used in the Past Continuous and the non-terminative, verb may be used either in the Past Continuous or, preferably, in the Past Indefinite.

She was arranging the books on the shelf while I played the piano.

(3) If both verbs are non-terminative the best way is the Past Indefinite in both clauses.

He read as he ate. (Bennett)

There is another possibility: the use of the Past Indefinite in one clause and the Past Continuous in the other.

He was singing as he walked.

Verbs Not Used in the Continuous Form

It naturally follows from the definition of the Continuous form ("it denotes an action in a state of process at the present moment or at a definite moment in the past or future") that verbs which do not express a process are not used in the continuous form.

The following groups of verbs do not express a process:

(a) verbs denoting sense perception (to see, to hear);

(b) verbs denoting mental activity (to know, to believe);

(c) verbs denoting wish (to want, to wish);

(d) verbs denoting feeling (to love, to hate, to like);

(e) verbs denoting abstract relations (to have, to consist, to depend, to belong).

In such expressions as to see the sights of, to see somebody home, to see somebody off the verb to see does not mean 'видеть', so it can be used in the Continuous form.

They were seeing the sights of London while their cousin waited for them at the hotel. (Wells)

It is naturally possible to use the Continuous form of the verb to have in the expressions of the type to have dinner (lunch, supper), because it does not denote possession.

They are having lunch.

The verb to think cannot be used in the Continuous form if it denotes an opinion; it can if it denotes a process of thought.

I think you are right.

I am thinking of what you have just said.

The verb to admire cannot be used in the Continuous form if it means 'восхищаться'; it can if it means 'любоваться'.

"I hope you dote on Harry the Eighth!" "I admire him very much," said Carker. (Dickens)

What are you doing here, my poetic little friend? Admiring the moon, eh? (Collins)

The Perfect Form

The Perfect form denotes an action completed before the present moment (and connected with it) or before a definite moment in the past or future.

It is formed by means of the auxiliary verb to have in the required tense and Participle II of the notional verb. (On the formation of Par­ticiple II see Chapter VII, § 3.)

The Present Perfect

§17. The formation of the Present Perfect.

1. The Present Perfect is formed by means of the Present Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to have and Participle II of the notional verb.

2. In the interrogative form the auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.

In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the auxiliary verb.

Affirmative

Interrogative

Negative

I have worked

He has worked

She has worked

We have worked

 You have worked

They have worked

Have I worked?

Has he worked?

Has she worked?

Have we worked?

Have you worked?

Have they worked?

I have not worked

He has not worked

She has not worked

We have not worked

 You have not worked

They have not worked

3. The contracted affirmative forms are:

I've worked

He's worked

You've worked

The contracted negative forms are:

I haven't worked

He hasn't worked

You haven't worked

4. The negative-interrogative forms are:

Has she not worked?

Hasn't she worked?

Have you not worked?

Haven't you worked?

§ 18. The use of the Present Perfect.

I. The Present Perfect denotes a completed action connected with the present.

Stop that car! They have killed a child. (Dreiser)

 I am a little frightened for I have lost my way. (Dickens)

The Present Perfect is frequently used with the adverbs just, yet, already and of late. The adverb yet is used only in interrogative and negative sentences.

Mr. Worthing, I suppose, has not returned from town yef! (Wilde)

I have just written to him. (Dickens)

He has done a great deal of work of late. (Locke)

N o t e. In American English the Past Indefinite is often used to give new information or to announce a recent happening.

I lost my key. Can you help me look for it?

The Past Indefinite is used with just, already and yet.

I'm not hungry. I just had lunch.

Don't forget to post the letter. — I already posted it.

I didn't tell them about the accident yet.

The Present Perfect can be rendered in Russian by the past perfec­tive or imperfective.

How many pages have you translated for today? — Сколько страниц вы перевели к сегодняшнему дню? Have you ever translated technical articles? — Вы переводили когда-нибудь технические статьи?

2. The Present Perfect is used in adverbial clauses of time after the conjunctions when, till, until, before, after; as soon as to denote an action completed before a definite moment in the future.

Don't buy any more meat tomorrow until you have spoken to the mistress about it. (Bennett)

I am not going till you have answered me. (Galsworthy)

Note. Verbs of sense perception and motion such as to hear; to see, to come, to arrive, to return in adverbial clauses of time are generally used in the Present Indefinite and not in the Present Perfect.

I am sure he will recognize the poem when he hears the first line. — Я уверен, что он узнает стихотворение, когда услышит первую строчку.

We'll ask Mr. Franklin, my dear, if you can wait till Mr. Franklin comes. (Collins)

When the completion of the action is emphasized, the Present Perfect is used.

He will know the poem by heart when he has heard it twice. — Он будет знать стихотворение наизусть, когда дважды прослу­шает его.

3. The Present Perfect denotes an action which began in the past, has been going on up to the present and is still going on. In this case either the starting point of the action is indicated or the whole period of duration. The preposition for is used to denote the whole period of duration. Since is used to indicate the starting point of the action. If the conjunction since introduces a clause, the verb in this clause is in the Past Indefinite.

Mr. Cowperwood, I have known you now for something like fourteen years. (Dreiser)

We have been engaged these four years. (Austen)

Where have you been since last Thursday? (Wilde)

Have you been alone, Florence, since I was here last? (Dick­ens)

Note. There is a tendency in informal American English, and increas­ingly in informal British English, to use the Past Indefinite in the principal clause, if the adverbial clause of time is introduced by the conjunction since.

I lost ten pounds since I started swimming (informal).

This use of the Present Perfect is called the Present Perfect Inclusive.

The Present Perfect Inclusive is used:

(a) with verbs not admitting of the Continuous form.

"There is nothing to be done. She's dead — has been dead for hours," said the doctor. (Eliot)

(b) in negative sentences. (In this case the Present Perfect Continu­ous is not impossible. See § 28.)

I have not slept since that night. (Bennett)

(c) with non-terminative verbs such as to live, to work, to study, to teach, to travel etc. (In this case the Present Perfect Continuous is possible. See § 28.)

I have worked upon the problem for a long time without reaching any conclusion. (Shaw)

The Present Perfect in this case is translated into Russian by the present or sometimes by the past imperfective.

I have known him for many years. — Я знаю его много лет. I have always been fond of music. — Я всегда любил му­зыку.

N о t е l. In the following cases the Present Perfect is not used:

1. Что вы сказали? — What did you say?

2. Я не слышал вашего вопроса. — I did not hear your ques­tion.

3. Где вы купили книгу? — Where did you buy the book?

4. Теперь я понял. — Now I understand.

5. Я слышал, что Мэри в Москве. — I hear that Mary is in Mos­cow (to hear is not a verb of sense perception here, it means 'the rumour reached me').

6. Мне сказали, что Мэри в Москве. — I am told that Mary is in Moscow.

7. Я забыл, где он живет. — I forget where he lives.

8. Я забыл название книги. — I forget the title of the book (a certain fact).

Compare:

I have forgotten to ring her up (a certain action).

N о t e 2. The Present Perfect is to be used in sentences starting with It's the first (second _y etc.) time..., This is the first (second, etc.) time...:

This is the first time she has driven a car.

§ 19. The Past Indefinite and the Present Perfect.

An action expressed by the Past Indefinite belongs exclusively to the sphere of the past, while the Present Perfect shows that a past oc­currence is connected with the present time.

She is not well and has changed very much of late.

She changed very much a great many years ago. (Dickens)

The Present Perfect is never used with such adverbial modifiers of the past time as yesterday, the other day, last week etc. With such adver­bial modifiers as today, this week etc. both the Present Perfect and the Past Indefinite arc used. The tenses are used according to the principle mentioned above (§ 4, § 18).

I have told you three times this week that she is coming home for a year. (Dreiser)

I want your sister, the woman who gave me money today. (Dick­ens)

With the adverb just the Present Perfect is used.

I have just hired a new pianist from St. Joe — a Negro. (Dreiser)

With the expression just now the Past Indefinite is used.

I saw you come in just now. (Dreiser)

Just now is less frequent than just.

The Past Perfect

§ 20. The formation of the Past Perfect.

1. The Past Perfect is formed by means of the Past Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to have and Participle II of the notional verb.

2. In the interrogative form the auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.

In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the auxiliary verb.

Affirmative

Interrogative

Negative

I  had worked

He had worked

 She had worked

 We had worked

You had worked

They had worked

Had I worked?

Had he worked?

Had she worked?

Had we worked?

Had you worked?

Had they worked?

I had not worked

He had not worked

 She had not worked

 We had not worked

 You had not worked

 They had not worked

3. The contracted affirmative forms are:

I'd written

We'd written

The contracted negative forms are:

I hadn't written

We hadn't written

4. The negative-interrogative forms are:

Had he not written?

Hadn't he written?

Had you not written?

Hadn't you written?

§ 21. The use of the Past Perfect.

I. The Past Perfect denotes an action completed before a certain moment in the past. The moment may be indicated by another past action expressed by a verb in the Past Indefinite or by an adverbial phrase.

They had walked only a few steps when a second group of tanks drew up on the side road. (Heym)

After she had cried out, she felt easier. (Heym)

Fortunately the rain had stopped before we started. (Ben­nett)

By this time Cowperwood had written Aileen under no circum­stances to try to see him. (Dreiser)

The clock had not struck when he reached Gray's Inn. (Dickens)

The definite moment can be understood from the situation.

The Squire had laid down his knife and fork, and was staring at his son in amazement. (Eliot)

The definite moment need not necessarily be expressed in the same sentence as the action expressed by the Past Perfect.

Everybody noticed how sad she was the whole evening. She had got an unpleasant letter. (Collins)

The Past Perfect is used with the conjunctions hardly... when, scarcely... when, no sooner... than.

They had no sooner arrived at this point than a most violent and startling knocking was heard. (Jerome)

Nell had scarcely settled herself on a little heap of straw in the corner when she fell asleep. (Dickens)

For the sake of emphasis the word order may be inverted.

No sooner had she laid herself down than she heard the pro­longed trill of the front-door bell. (Bennett)

The Past Perfect is frequently used with the adverbs just, al­ready, yet.

Elsie, who had not yet assumed the white cap, was sweeping the stairs. (Bennett)

2. Sometimes the Past Perfect does not denote priority but only the completion of the action.

He waited until she had found the latch-key and opened the door. (Bennett)

The Squire was purple with anger before his son had done speaking. (Eliot)

The Past Perfect is rendered in Russian by the past perfective.

By this time Cowperwood had written Aileen under no circum­stances to try to see him. (Dreiser) — К этому времени Kaynep- вуд написал Эйлин, чтобы она ни в коем случае не пыталась с ним встретиться.

3. The Past Perfect is used to denote an action which began before a definite moment in the past, continued up to that moment and was still going on at that moment. This use is called the Past Perfect Inclu­sive. The starting point or the whole period of duration of the action is indicated. To indicate the starting point the preposition since is used, to indicate the whole period of duration for is used.

The Past Perfect Inclusive is used:

(a) with verbs not admitting of the Continuous form.

Examination convinced him that the deacon was dead — had been dead for some time. (Eliot)

(b) in negative sentences. (In this case the Past Perfect Continuous is also possible, but not common. See § 32.)

Those two had not spoken to each other for three days and were in a state of rage. (Bennett)

(c) with non-terminative verbs such as to work, to live, to study, to teach, to travel, to laststc. (In this case the Past Perfect Continuous is Possible. See § 32.)

The ride had lasted about ten minutes, when the truck suddenly swerved to a halt. (Heym)

The Past Perfect Inclusive is generally rendered in Russian by the past perfective.

He had not written a line since he arrived. — Он не написал ни строчки с тех пор, как приехал.

§ 22. The Past Indefinite and the Past Perfect.

1. The Past Perfect is not used to denote a succession of actions. In this case the Past Indefinite is used.

The Past Indefinite is used with the conjunctions after; before, when if the relation between the actions approaches succession, i. e. when the idea of completion is of no importance.

He went on with his work after he had a short rest.

He had a short rest before he went on with his work.

When I wrote the letter, I posted it.

2. Verbs of motion and sense perception such as to come, to ar­rive, to return, to see, to hear; in adverbial clauses of time are generally used in the Past Indefinite and not in the Past Perfect. The actions are practically simultaneous.

When he (Val) came down... he found his mother scrupulous in a low evening dress... (Galsworthy)

When he heard the first line of the poem, he recognized it at once.

When the completion of the action is emphasized the Past Perfect is used.

He knew the poem by heart when he had heard it several times.

The Future Perfect

§ 23. The formation of the Future Perfect.

1. The Future Perfect is formed by means of the Future Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to have and Participle II of the notional verb.

2. In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.

In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary verb.

Affirmative

Interrogative

I shall/will have worked

Shall/Will I have worked?

He will have worked

Will he have worked?

She will have worked

Will she have worked?

We shall/will have worked

Shall/Will we have worked?

You will have worked

Will you have worked?

They will have worked

Will they have worked?

Negative

I shall/will not have worked

He will not have worked

She will not have worked

We shall/will not have worked

You will not have worked

 They will not have worked

3. The contracted affirmative forms are:

I'll have worked

He'll have worked

The contracted negative forms are:

I shan't have worked

He won't have worked

4. The negative-interrogative forms are:

Will he not have worked?

 Won't he have worked?

Shall we not have worked?

Shan't we have worked?

§ 24. The use of the Future Perfect.

1. The Future Perfect denotes an action completed before a definite moment in the future.

I shall be back by six, and I hope you will have had a good sleep by that time. (Marryat)

2. The Future Perfect can denote an action which will begin before a definite moment in the future, will continue up to that moment and will be going on at that moment. This use of the Future Perfect is called the Future Perfect Inclusive.

The Future Perfect Inclusive is used with verbs not admitting of the Continuous form, in negative sentences, with non-terminative verbs such as to work, to live, to study, to teach etc.

I shall/will have been a teacher for 20 years by next May. I shall/will have worked as a teacher for 20 years by next May.

The Future Perfect in the Past

§25. The formation of the Future Perfect in the Past.

1. The Future Perfect in the Past is formed by means of the Future Indefinite in the Past of the auxiliary verb to have and Participle II of the notional verb.

2. In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.

In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary verb.

Affirmative

Interrogative

I should/would have worked

He would have worked

She would have worked

We should/would have worked

You would have worked

They would have worked

Should/Would I have worked?

Would he have worked?

 Would she have worked?

Should/Would we have worked?

Would you have worked?

Would they have worked?

Negative

I should/would not have worked

He would not have worked

She would not have worked

We should/would not have worked

You would not have worked

They would not have worked

3. The contracted affirmative forms are:

I'd have worked

He'd have worked

The contracted negative forms are:

I shouldn't have worked

He wouldn't have worked

4. The negative-interrogative forms are:

Should I not have worked?

Shouldn't I have worked?

Would he not have worked?

 Wouldn't he have worked?

§ 26. The use of the Future Perfect in the Past.

The Future Perfect in the Past is used to denote an action com­pleted before a definite moment which was future from the point of view of the past.

I wondered whether they would have reached the place by noon.

(For detailed treatment see Chapter XVIII.)

The Perfect Continuous Form

The Perfect Continuous form denotes an action in progress, whose duration before a definite moment in the present, past or future is expressed.

It is formed by means of the auxiliary verb to be in one of the perfect tenses and Participle I of the notional verb.

The Present Perfect Continuous

§ 27. The formation of the Present Perfect Continuous.

The Present Perfect Continuous is formed by means of the Present Perfect of the auxiliary verb to be and Participle I of the no­tional verb.

In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.

In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary verb.

Affirmative

Interrogative

I have been working

He has been working

She has been working

 We have been working

 You have been working

They have been working

Have I been working?

Has he been working?

Has she been working?

Have we been working?

Have you been working?

Have they been working?

Negative

I have not been working

He has not been working

She has not been working

We have not been working

You have not been working

They have not been working

The contracted affirmative forms are:

I've been working

He's been working

 You've been working

The contracted negative forms are:

I haven't been working

He hasn't been working

We haven't been working

The negative-interrogative forms are:

Has he not been working?

Hasn't he been working?

Have you not been working?

Haven't you been working?

§ 28. The use of the Present Perfect Continuous.

We distinguish two uses of the Present Perfect Continuous: the Present Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Present Perfect Continu­ous Exclusive.

1. The Present Perfect Continuous Inclusive is used to denote an action which began in the past, has been going on up to the present and is still going on.

The Present Perfect Continuous Inclusive is generally used with since (denoting the starting point of the action), for (denoting the whole period of duration), these two days, etc. (If the conjunction since intro­duces a clause, the verb in this clause is in the Past Indefinite.)

I have been looking out for your white dress for the last ten minutes. (Bennett)

Ever since I saw you last I have been thinking, thinking. (Dreiser)

As has been stated above (see § 18.3) the Present Perfect Inclusive is used to denote an action which began in the past, has been going on up to the present and is still going on with verbs not admitting of the Continuous form, in negative sentences and with certain non-terminative verbs.

With verbs not admitting of the Continuous form the Present Perfect Inclusive is the only tense possible.

Note. In colloquial English the verbs to want and to wish are often to be found in the Perfect Continuous form, though, as stated above, they are not used in the Continuous form.

I have been wishing to speak to you ever since you returned. (Collins)

With verbs in the negative form the Present Perfect Continuous Inclusive can be used, but it is far less common than the Present Perfect Inclusive.

With certain non-terminative verbs both the Present Perfect Inclu­sive and the Present Perfect Continuous Inclusive are used.

We have worked at the problem for several months. (The fact is emphasized.)

We have been working and working at the problem for months and I don't think we are likely to solve it. (Locke) (The process is emphasized.)

The Present Perfect Continuous Inclusive is rendered in Russian by the present:

I have been teaching at this school for 20 years. — Я препо­даю в этой школе 20 лет.

2. The Present Perfect Continuous Exclusive denotes an action which was recently in progress but is no longer going on at the present moment.

You are not well to-day. You look distressed. You have been weeping. (Dickens)

The Present Perfect Continuous Exclusive is used to express re­peated actions in the past.

How have you been spending your money?

I have been buying pictures. (Locke)

I have been getting letters from him.

The Present Perfect Continuous Exclusive is often used with an emotional colouring.

I suppose you have been telling lies again. (Marryat)

The Present Perfect Continuous Exclusive is rendered in Russian by the past imperfective.

Your eyes are red. You have been crying. — У вас покраснели глаза. Вы плакали.

§ 29. The Present Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Present Con­tinuous.

Students should take care not to mix up the Present Perfect Con­tinuous and the Present Continuous: the Present Continuous is used to denote an action going on at the present moment, no previous duration is expressed. The Present Perfect Continuous Inclusive is used when the previous duration of the action is expressed.

I am reading Dombey and Son.

I have been reading Dombey and Son for three days.

There is no difference in the translation:

Я читаю роман «Домби и сын».

Я читаю роман «Домби и сын» три дня.

§ 30. The Present Perfect and the Present Perfect Continuous Exclusive.

The Present Perfect denotes a completed action while with the Present Perfect Continuous Exclusive there is an implication of in­completeness.

He has made some experiments. — Он сделал несколько опытов.

Не has been making experiments. — Он делал опыты. Why are your lips black? I have been eating blackberries. I have eaten a whole plateful. — Я ел чернику. Я съел целую тарелку.

She is walking up and down the room thinking of the letter she has been writing and wondering how she should finish it.

She is going to post the letter she has just written.

The Past Perfect Continuous

§ 31. The formation of the Past Perfect Continuous.

1. The Past Perfect Continuous is formed by means of the Past Perfect of the auxiliary verb to be and Participle I of the notional verb.

2. In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.

In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary verb.

Affirmative

Interrogative

I had been writing

He had been writing

She had been writing

We had been writing

You had been writing

They had been writing

Had I been writing?

Had he been writing?

Had she been writing?

Had we been writing?

Had you been writing?

Had they been writing?

Negative

I had not been writing

He had not been writing

She had not been writing

We had not been writing

You had not been writing

They had not been writing

3. The contracted affirmative forms are:

I'd been writing

She'd been writing

The contracted negative forms are:

I hadn't been writing

We hadn't been writing

4. The negative-interrogative forms are:

Had he not been writing? ( Hadn't he been writing?

Had you not been writing? I Hadn't you been writing?

§ 32. The use of the Past Perfect Continuous.

We distinguish two uses of the Past Perfect Continuous: the Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Past Perfect Continuous Exclu­sive.

1. The Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive denotes an action which began before a definite moment in the past, continued up to that mo­ment and was still going on at that moment. Either the starting point of the action is indicated or the whole period of duration. The preposi­tion for is used to denote the whole period of duration. Since is used to indicate the starting point of the action.

We could not go out because it had been raining since early morning.

We could not go out because it had been raining for two hours.

He had been entertaining at restaurants for thirty years and he knew how to assure the smooth passage of the meal. (Ben­nett)

As has been stated above (see § 21), the Past Perfect Inclusive is used to express an action which began before a definite moment in the past, continued up to that moment and was still going on at that moment, with verbs not admitting of the Continuous form, in negative sentences and with certain non-terminative verbs.

With verbs not admitting of the Continuous form the Past Perfect Inclusive is the only tense possible.

In negative sentences the Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive can be used, but it is far less common than the Past Perfect Inclusive.

With certain non-terminative verbs both the Past Perfect Inclusive and the Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive are used.

He said he had worked for twenty years. (The fact is empha­sized.)

He said he had been working for a long time without achieving final results. (The process is emphasized.)

The Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive is rendered in Russian by the past imperfective.

I had been reading about an hour when he came. — Я читал около часа, когда он пришел.

2. The Past Perfect Continuous Exclusive denotes an action which was no longer going on at a definite moment in the past, but which had been in progress not long before.

I sobbed a little still, but that was because I had been crying, not because I was crying then. (Dickens)

§ 33. The Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Past Continu­ous.

The Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive should not be confused with the Past Continuous. The Past Continuous is used to denote an action going on at a definite moment in the past, no previous duration is expressed. The Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive is used when the previous duration of the action is expressed.

And now it was raining, had been raining for days the miserable fall rains of Eastern France. (Heym)

The magnificent motor-car was waiting at the kerb. It had been waiting for two hours. (Bennett)

The Future Perfect Continuous

§ 34. The formation of the Future Perfect Continuous.

1. The Future Perfect Continuous is formed by means of the Fu­ture Perfect of the auxiliary verb to be and Participle I of the notional verb.

2. In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.

In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary verb.

Affirmative

Interrogative

I shall/will have been working

He will have been working

She will have been working

We shall/will have been working

You will have been working

They will have been working

Shall/Will I have been working?

Will he have been working?

Will she have been working?

 Shall/Will we have been working?

Will you have been working?

Will they have been working?

Negative

I shall/will not have been working

He will not have been working

She will not have been working

We shall/will not have been working

You will not have been working

They will not have been working

3. The contracted affirmative forms are:

I'll have been working

He'll have been working

The contracted negative forms are:

I shan't have been working

He won't have been working

4. The negative-interrogative forms are:

Will he not have been working?

 Won't he have been working?

Shall we not have been working?

Shan't we have been working?

§ 35. The use of the Future Perfect Continuous.

The Future Perfect Continuous denotes an action which will begin before a definite moment in the future, will continue up to that moment and will be going on at that moment.

We shall/will have been working at this problem for a month when you visit us a second time.

The Future Perfect Continuous in the Past

§ 36. The formation of the Future Perfect Continuous in the Past.

1. The Future Perfect Continuous in the Past is formed by means of the Future Perfect in the Past of the auxiliary verb to be and Participle I of the notional verb.

2. In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.

In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary verb.

Affirmative

Interrogative

I should/would have been working

He would have been working

She would have been working

We should/would have been working

 You would have been working

They would have been working

Should/Would I have been working?

Would he have been working?

Would she have been working? Should/Would we have been working? Would you have been working?

Would they have been working?

Negative

I should/would not have been working

He would not have been working

She would not have been working

We should/would not have been working

You would not have been working

They would not have been working

3. The contracted affirmative forms are:

I'd have been working

He'd have been working

The contracted negative forms are:

I shouldn't have been working

He wouldn't have been working

4. The negative-interrogative forms are:

 Should I not have been working? \ Shouldn't I have been working⁹

Would he not have been working? Wouldn't he have been working?

§ 37. The use of the Future Perfect Continuous in the Past.

The Future Perfect Continuous in the Past denotes an action last­ing during a certain period of time before a definite moment which was future from the point of view of the past.

I wondered how long they would have been packing by the time I returned.

( For detailed treatment see Chapter XVIII.)

Table of Tenses

Present

Past

Future

Future

in the Past

Indefinite

I go to the theatre every week.

I went to the theatre last week.

I shall/will go to the theatre next week.

I said I should/ would go to the theatre next week.

Continuous

(Don't speak to him.) He is working.

When I came, he was work­ing.

(Don't come at 8.) I shall/will be working.

He said he would be

working at 8 o'clock.

Perfect

1. (I can return the books to the library.)

I have read them.

2. I have known him for two years.

1. I had read all the books by the 1st of April.

2. By 2005 I had known him for two years.

1. I shall/will have read all the books by the 1st of April.

2. By 2015 I shall/will have known him for twelve years.

I said I should/ would have read all the books by the 1st of April.

Continuous

Perfect

1. I have been

reading the book for a week.

2. (I am very tired.) I have been reading

a lot.

1. I had been

reading the book for a week, when you asked me for it

2. (I was very tired.) I had been reading

a lot.

By the 1st of

May I shall/will have been

reading the book for a fort­ night.

I said that by the 1st of May I should/would have been reading the book for a fort­ night.

The Passive Voice

§ 1. The formation of the Passive Voice.

The Passive Voice is formed by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the required form and Participle II of the notional verb.

(a) The Present, Past and Future Indefinite Passive are formed by means of the Present, Past and Future Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to be and Participle II of the notional verb.

Present Indefinite Passive

Past Indefinite Passive

Future Indefinite Passive

I am invited

He is invited

She is invited

We are invited

You are invited

They are invited

I was invited

He was invited

She was invited

We were invited

You were invited

 They were invited

I shall/will be invited

He will be invited

She will be invited

We shall/will be invited

You will be invited

They will be invited

(b) The Present, Past and Future Perfect Passive are formed by means of the Present, Past and Future Perfect of the auxiliary verb to be and Participle II of the notional verb.

Present Perfect Passive

Past Perfect Passive

I have been invited

He has been invited

She has been invited

We have been invited

You have been invited

 They have been invited

I had been invited

He had been invited

She had been invited

We had been invited

You had been invited

They had been invited

Future Perfect Passive

I shall/will have been invited

He will have been invited

She will have been invited

We shall/will have been invited You will have been invited

They will have been invited

(c) The Present Continuous and the Past Continuous Passive are formed by means of the Present Continuous and the Past Continuous of the auxiliary verb to be and Participle II of the notional verb.

Present Continuous Passive

Past Continuous Passive

I am being invited

He is being invited

She is being invited

We are being invited

You are being invited

They are being invited

I was being invited

He was being invited

She was being invited

We were being invited

You were being invited

They were being invited

The Future Continuous, the Present Perfect Continuous, the Past Perfect Continuous and the Future Perfect Continuous are not found in the Passive Voice.

Note. There are Passive Voice constructions with the verb get, but the so- called get-Passive is avoided in formal style, and even in informal English it is far less frequent than the Passive.

Sally got caught (by the police). The house is getting rebuilt.

Such criticisms will get treated with the contempt they de­serve.

§ 2. The use of the Passive Voice.

The Passive Voice can be used:

(a) without the doer of the action being mentioned (the usual case). In this case the doer is either unknown or unimportant.

In silence the soup was finished — excellent, if a little thick; and fish was brought. In silence it was handed. (Galsworthy)

Tom Tusher was sent off early, however, to a school in London. (Thackeray)

(b) with the doer of the action being mentioned. This occurs only when the doer of the action is to some extent emphasized.

The noun or pronoun denoting the doer of the action is introduced by the preposition by.

He was wrenched from his blank wretchedness by the sound of the door opening from his mother's room. (Galsworthy)

They were thus introduced by Holly. (Galsworthy)

This room was dimly lighted from the ceiling by a single electric lamp. (Bennett)

§ 3. The use of tenses in the Passive Voice.

The uses of tenses in the Active and in the Passive Voice are the same.

INDEFINITE

Present

New schools are built every year.

Past

This school was built a month ago.

Future

A new school will be built in our village in spring.

PERFECT

Present

The school has been built this month.

Past

The school had been built by the 1st of Sep­tember.

Future

I am sure the school will have been built by the 1st of September.

CONTINUOUS

Present

A new school is being built in our street.

Past

When I returned to town, the school was still being built.

All Forsytes have shells... in other words, they are never seen, or if seen would not be recognized. (Galsworthy)

 The news was brought that the little boy at the "Three Castles" was ill. (Thackeray)

Further meetings will be held tonight and tomorrow night. (Daily Worker)

You have been told three times this week that she is coming home for a year for her health. (Shaw)

I have been very unhappy since she died. I have been slighted and taught nothing, and thrown upon myself, and put to work not fit for me. (Dickens)

By 12 o'clock a jury reasonably satisfactory to both sides had been chosen. (Dreiser)

Don't you disturb him. He is working at his wonderful poem. An immortal work of art is being created. (Marryat)

When Mills got to the stables, a horse was being saddled. (Eliot)

To express an action going on at a definite moment in the future only the Future Continuous Active is possible. Thus the Russian sentence ^k Когда вы придете в лабораторию, опыт уже будет производиться' must be translated in the following way:

When you come to the laboratory, we'll be already making the experiment.

To denote an action which began before a definite moment in the present, past or future, and continued up to that moment, the Present, Past and Future Perfect Continuous Active are generally used.

Уже два часа как правят корректуру. — They have been read­ing the proofs for two hours.

Когда пришел главный редактор, корректуру правили уже два часа. — When the editor-in-chief came, they had been reading the proofs for two hours.

The Present Perfect Inclusive Passive and the Past Perfect Inclusive Passive are found with verbs not used in the Continuous form, in nega­tive sentences and with some non-terminative verbs (see Chapter VII, Tenses, §18,21).

She hasalways been admired.

The dictionary has not been used for months.

§ 4. Ways of translating the Passive Voice into Russian.

There are three ways of translating the Passive Voice into Rus­sian:

(a)by the verb быть + краткая форма причастия страдательного залога. In the Present the verb быть is not used.

(b)by verbs in -ся.

(c)by means of indefinite-personal constructions (неопределен­но-личные предложения).

The last way of translating is possible only if the doer of the action is not mentioned.

Houses are built of stone. — Дома строятся из камня. Дома строят из камня.

The house was built in 1932. — Дом (был) построен в 1932 году. Дом построили в 1932 году.

The experiment was made by a famous scientist. — Опыт был произведен знаменитым ученым. Опыт производился знаменитым ученым.

§ 5. Uses of the Passive Voice peculiar to the English language.

There are cases when the use of the Passive Voice seems to Russian students very peculiar because we find no analogous constructions in Russian. These cases are as follows:

1. The verbs to accord, to advise, to allow, to ask, to award, to deny, to envy, to forbid (rare), to forgive, to give, to grant,  to offer, to order; to pay, to prescribe, to promise, to refuse, to show, to teach, to tell are used in the Passive Voice. These verbs always take an object expressed by a noun or an infinitive. The action expressed by the Passive Predicate passes on to the subject and the object. The subject corresponds to the Russian indirect object.

He was granted a ten days' leave.

Has he been shown the documents?

The patient was prescribed a strict diet.

He was ordered a change of scene.

We were told to wait.

Note. These verbs admit of another type of passive construction if the object is expressed by a noun. Thus we can say not only I was given a book, He was shown a book, but also A book was given to me, A book was shown to him. The choice of the construction depends on the logical stress: in I was given a book, He was shown a book the thing given is emphasized, which occurs oftener; in The book was given to me, The book was shown to him the person is emphasized.

2. The Passive Voice is possible with intransitive verbs used with prepositions: to account for; to agree upon, to allude to, to arrive at (a conclusion, agreement, decision), to call for, to call upon, to comment upon, to count upon, to depend on (upon), to dispose of, to fire at, to hear of to insist on (upon), to interfere with, to laugh at, to listen to, to look after, to look at, to look down upon (смотреть на кого-либо сверху вниз), to look up to (смотреть на кого-либо снизу вверх), to provide for, to put up at (остановиться), to put up with (примириться), to read to, to refer to, to rely on, to run over, to sendfor, to speak about (of), to stare at, to talk about (to, over).

At last an agreement was arrived at.

Her strange behaviour was largely commented upon.

He can be depended upon to keep strict silence.

This is certainly a great inconvenience, but it must be put up with.

The article is often referred to.

Steerforth was looked up to by all the boys.

The phrasal verb to do away with the preposition with can be used in the Passive Voice.

In our country illiteracy was done away with many years ago.

Note. To send for can be used only in connection with people.

The doctor was sent for.

The secretary will be sent for.

'Послать за лекарством (книгой)' should be translated in the following way: to send somebody to get the medicine (the book). But we can say: A car (a cab, a taxi) was sent for.

5. The following verbal phraseological units can be used in the Pas­sive Voice: to findfault with (придираться, находить недостатки), to lose sight of (терять из виду), to make fun of to make use of (исполь­зовать), to pay attention to, to put an end to (положить конец), to set fire to, to take notice of to take care of

The poor child wasalways being found fault with.

Soon the boat was lost sight of.

He was exceedingly absent-minded and was always made fun of.

His remarks were taken no notice of.

The discussion was put an end to by his sudden arrival.

6. Quite peculiar is the case when the subject of the passive predicate corresponds to the Russian adverbial modifier. This is the case with the intransitive verbs to live and to sleep with the preposition in.

The bed was not slept in.

The room is not lived in.

7. There are a number of transitive verbs in English which corre­spond to intransitive verbs in Russian. They are: to affect, to answer, to assist, to attend, to follow, to help, to influence, to join, to watch.

These verbs naturally admit of the passive construction while their Russian equivalents cannot be used in the Passive Voice.

She was greatly affected by the scene.

The report was followed by a discussion.

Walter Scott's poetry was strongly influenced by the popular ballads.

Such sentences are rendered in Russian by indefinite-personal sentences (неопределенно-личные предложения) unless the doer of the action is mentioned. In the latter case either the Active Voice is used, which occurs rather seldom, or the Passive Voice (consisting of the verb быть + краткая форма причастия страдательного залога).

Не was granted ten days' leave. — Ему дали десятидневный отпуск.

At last an agreement was arrived at. — Наконец пришли к соглашению.

The bed was not slept in. — Впостели не спали.

The poor child was always being found fault with. — К бедному ребенку всегда придирались.

Steerforth was looked up to by all the boys. — Все мальчики смотрели на Стирфорта снизу вверх.

§ 6. The verbto be + Participle II.

The combination to be + Participle II can denote an action, in which case it is a simple predicate expressed by a verb in the Passive Voice. It can also denote a state, then it is a compound nominal predicate consisting of a link verb and a predicative. Thus, Passive Voice construc­tions can be subdivided into Passive Voice constructions of action and Passive Voice constructions of state.

As the director was ill, the documents were signed by his as­sistant. (Were signed denotes an action.) When I came, the papers were signed and lay on the secretary's table. (Were signed denotes a state.)

The compound nominal predicate expressed by the verb to be and Participle II can be translated only by the verb быть + краткая форма причастия страдательного залога. In the Present the verb быть is not used.

The statue is broken. — Статуя разбита. When I came, the papers were signed and lay on the secretary's table. — Когда я пришел, документы были подписаны и ле­жали на столе у секретаря.

The use of tenses is closely connected with these meanings of the combination to be + Participle II.

When I came up to the gate, it was already locked. — Когда я подошел к воротам, они уже были заперты. (The predicate indicates the state of the gate at a given moment.)

When I came up to the gate, it had already been locked. — Когда я подошел к воротам, их уже заперли. (The predicate indicates an action completed before a definite moment in the past.)

Don't try to open the gate. It is locked. — He пытайтесь открыть ворота. Они заперты.(state)

It has just been locked. — Их только что заперли, (action)

It is sometimes difficult to discriminate between the verb to be + Participle II as a simple predicate and as a compound nominal predicate.

(a)We have the Passive Voice (simple predicate) in the following cases:

(b)when the doer of the action is indicated (as a rule).

(c)when there is an adverbial modifier of place, frequency and, as a rule, of time.

Pravda is published in Moscow.

Good books are quickly sold.

The documents were signed a few minutes ago.

(d)when the verb is used in the Continuous or in the Perfect form.

Some efforts were even then being made to cut this portion of the wreck away. (Dickens)

Ever since that, the cannon business has always been left to an adopted foundling named Andrew Undershaft. (Shaw)

1. We have a compound nominal predicate in the following cases:

(a) usually when the verb to be is in the Present or Past Perfect Inclusive and the notional verb admits of the Continuous form.

Why don't you go and take the documents? They are ready. They have been typed these two hours. — Документы готовы. Уже два часа как они напечатаны.

Our things had been packed for two hours and we were impa­tiently pacing up and down the room when at last we heard the sound of wheels. — Вещи уже два часа как были упакованы, и мы в нетерпении ходили взад и вперед по комнате, когда наконец услышали стук колес.

(b) when Participle II denotes a state of mind. In this case the predicate is compound even if there is an object introduced by the preposition by. This object does not denote the doer of an action but the cause of the state.

He was frightened by the remark.

He was oppressed by a sense of loneliness.

When these criteria cannot be applied the context itself helps to decide whether the predicate is a simple or a compound nominal one.

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