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Kāmandaka (1.20). — ‘The King (Kṣatriya) should live by his weapons and by protecting the people. The means of subsistence for the Vaiśya are cattle-rearing, agriculture and trade.’

Arthaśāstra (p. 29). — ‘The duties of the Kṣatriya are studying, sacrificing, making gilts, living by arms, and protecting of living beings; of the Vaiśya — studying, sacrificing, giving gifts, agriculture, cattle-tending and trade.’

VERSE 10.78

Section VIII (b) - Functions of the Castes

वैश्यं प्रति तथैवैते निवर्तेरन्निति स्थितिः ।
न तौ प्रति हि तान् धर्मान् मनुराह प्रजापतिः ॥७८॥

vaiśyaṃ prati tathaivaite nivarteranniti sthitiḥ |
na tau prati hi tān dharmān manurāha prajāpatiḥ ||78||

For the Vaiśya also these three should cease, — such is the law; since Prajāpati Manu has not prescribed these duties for those two (castes). — (78)

Medhātithi’s commentary (manubhāṣya):

The sense of this is explained by what has gone before.

‘Those two’ — The Kṣatriya and the Vaiśya; for these two, manu Prajāpati has not prescribed the three duties of Teaching and the rest; i.e., he has not declared these to be the duties belonging to them. — (78)

Comparative notes by various authors:

(verses 10.77-80)

[See texts under 9.326 et seq.]

See Comparative notes for Verse 10.77.

VERSE 10.79

Section VIII (b) - Functions of the Castes

शस्त्रास्त्रभृत्त्वं क्षत्रस्य वणिक्पशुकृषिर्विषः ।
आजीवनार्थं धर्मस्तु दानमध्ययनं यजिः ॥७९॥

śastrāstrabhṛttvaṃ kṣatrasya vaṇikpaśukṛṣirviṣaḥ |
ājīvanārthaṃ dharmastu dānamadhyayanaṃ yajiḥ ||79||

For the Kṣatriya carrying of arms and weapons, and for the Vaiśya, trade, cattle-tending and agriculture, are the means of livelihood; while giving, studying and sacrificing constitute their duty. — (79)

Medhātithi’s commentary (manubhāṣya):

These are their functions, which serve to provide them with the means of subsistence.

‘Arms’ — The sword and the rest, as also the incantations bearing upon the use of these.

This verse also is only reiterative of what has gone before; the terms ‘vaṇik’ and ‘paśu’ (used here) standing for what have been spoken of before as ‘vāṇijya’ and ‘paśupālaṇa.’ Though studying and the rest are the ‘duty’ of all the three twice-born castes, yet they are chiefly so for these two. — (79)

Explanatory notes by Ganganath Jha:

This verse is quoted in Parāśaramādhava (Ācāra, p. 397), to the effect that the wielding of weapons for the protection of the weak is the duty of the Kṣatriya only; — and in Mitākṣarā (1.119).

Comparative notes by various authors:

(verses 10.77-80)

[See texts under 9.326 et seq.]

See Comparative notes for Verse 10.77.

VERSE 10.80

Section VIII (b) - Functions of the Castes

वेदाभ्यासो ब्राह्मणस्य क्षत्रियस्य च रक्षणम् ।
वार्ताकर्मैव वैश्यस्य विशिष्टानि स्वकर्मसु ॥८०॥

vedābhyāso brāhmaṇasya kṣatriyasya ca rakṣaṇam |
vārtākarmaiva vaiśyasya viśiṣṭāni svakarmasu ||80||

Among their respective occupations, the most useful are — constant Vedic study for the Brāhmaṇa, protection for the Kṣatriya and commercial dealings for the Vaiśya. — (80)

Medhātithi’s commentary (manubhāṣya):

‘Vedic study’. — Since the subject-matter of the section is the means of livelihood, this must be taken as standing for the teaching of the Veda.

‘These are the most useful among their respective occupations.’ That is, among the means of livelihood sanctioned by the scriptures for them, these are most conducive to their welfare, out of all the other occupations carried on for the purpose of livelihood. — (80)

Explanatory notes by Ganganath Jha:

‘Vārtā.’ — ‘Trade’ (Nandana); — ‘trade and cattle-tending’ (Kullūka); — ‘trade, cattle-tending and agriculture’ (Govindarāja).

Comparative notes by various authors:

(verses 10.77-80)

[See texts under 9.326 et seq.]

See Comparative notes for Verse 10.77.

VERSE 10.81 [Variations in the Functions of the Brāhmaṇa due to Abnormal Conditions]

Section IX - Variations in the Functions of the Brāhmaṇa due to Abnormal Conditions

अजीवंस्तु यथोक्तेन ब्राह्मणः स्वेन कर्मणा ।
जीवेत् क्षत्रियधर्मेण स ह्यस्य प्रत्यनन्तरः ॥८१॥

ajīvaṃstu yathoktena brāhmaṇaḥ svena karmaṇā |
jīvet kṣatriyadharmeṇa sa hyasya pratyanantaraḥ ||81||

If the Brāhmaṇa is unable to subsist by his own occupation as described above, he may make a living by the function of the Kṣatriya; since this latter is next to him. — (81)

Medhātithi’s commentary (manubhāṣya):

When ho finds it difficult to maintain himself, his family and his business, and he is unable to obtain wealth sufficient for all this, then he is said to be ‘unable to subsist.’

‘As described above’; — i.e., by Teaching and the rest Ho may make, like the Kṣatriya, a living by guarding over villages and towns, by carrying arms and weapons, and also, if possible, by ruling over the people.

The exact meaning of ‘making a living’ has been already explained; it does not stand here for the mere maintenance of one’s own body; it implies the maintenance of the family and also the carrying on of one’s business.

‘He is next to him’ — ‘pratyanantara’ is the same as ‘anantara.’ Inasmuch as the text has provided this reason, it follows that the occupations of those removed by further degrees (i.e., of the Vaiśya or the Śūdra) involve sin for the Brāhmaṇa. Though the abandoning of his own occupation would be the same in all, yet it should not be thought that there is no difference in the degree of transgression of the law involved in having recourse to the occupations of the Vaiśya and those of the Śūdra; since, as the next verse declares, the Brāhmaṇa may have recourse to the occupation of the Vaiśya). — (81)

Explanatory notes by Ganganath Jha:

This verse is quoted in Madanapārijāta (p. 231); — in Vīramitrodaya, (Rājanīti, p. 13), to the effect that Kingship is not altogether forbidden to the Brāhmaṇa; — and in Nṛsiṃhaprasāda (Āhnika, 36b).

Comparative notes by various authors:

(verses 10.81-84)

Gautama (7.4-7). — ‘In times of distress, it is permissible to offer sacrifices for men of all castes, to teach them and to accept gifts from them; each preceding mode of living being preferable to the succeeding. On failure of the occupations lawful for the Brāhmaṇa, he may live by the occupations of the Kṣatriya; and on failure of these latter, he may live by the occupations of the Vaiśya.’

Baudhāyana (1.4.16-21). — ‘A Brāhmaṇa, who is unable to subsist by teaching, sacrificing for others or the acceptance of gifts, shall maintain himself by following the duties of the Kṣatriya, because that is the next following caste. Gautama declares that the Brāhmaṇa shall not act thus; for the functions of the Kṣatriya are too cruel for the Brāhmaṇa. They quote also the following verse: — “Out of regard for the sacred law, a Brāhmaṇa or a Vaiśya may take up arms for the protection of cows or Brāhmaṇas, or when a confusion of castes threatens to take place.” Or, the Brāhmaṇa may adopt the Vaiśya’s means of livelihood; because that is the one following next. If he lives by agriculture, he shall plough before breakfast, and with two bulls whose noses have not been pierced, never striking them with the goad, but frequently coaxing them.’

Vaśiṣṭha (2.22-24, 32-33). — ‘Those who are unable to live by their own lawful occupation may adopt that of the next inferior caste; but never that of a higher caste. A Brāhmaṇa and a Kṣatriya who have resorted to the Vaiśya’s mode of livelihood and maintain themselves by trade shall not sell the following things — stone, &c., &c., &c. For the purpose of cultivation, he shall plough before breakfast with two bulls whose noses have not been pierced; if he ploughs in the hot season, he shall water his beasts even in the morning.’

Viṣṇu (2.15). — ‘In times of distress, each caste may follow the occupation of that next to it in rank.’

Yājñavalkya (3.34). — ‘In times of distress, the Brāhmaṇa may maintain himself by the occupation of the Kṣatriya, or by that of the Vaiśya; but having tided over the distress, he shall purify himself by expiations and confine himself to his own path.’

Mahābhārata (3.208.23 — 12.263.44-45). — (Same as Manu 84.)

Nārada (1.56-60). — ‘In times of distress, a Brāhmaṇa is allowed to gain his subsistence in the mode prescribed for the caste next to him in rank; or he may gain his subsistence like a Vaiśya. But he must never resort to the mode of livelihood prescribed for the lowest caste. At no time should a Brāhmaṇa follow the occupations of a man of vile caste, or a vile man the occupations of a Brāhmaṇa; in either case, expulsion from caste would be the immediate consequence... When a Brāhmaṇa has lived through the times of distress, with the wealth acquired by following the occupations of the Kṣatriya, he must perform a penance and relinquish those occupations. When a Brāhmaṇa takes delight in those occupations and persists in them, he is declared to be a Kāṇḍapṛṣṭha and must be expelled from society, because he has swerved from the path of duty.’

VERSE 10.82

Section IX - Variations in the Functions of the Brāhmaṇa due to Abnormal Conditions

उभाभ्यामप्यजीवंस्तु कथं स्यादिति चेद् भवेत् ।
कृषिगोरक्षमास्थाय जीवेद् वैश्यस्य जीविकाम् ॥८२॥

ubhābhyāmapyajīvaṃstu kathaṃ syāditi ced bhavet |
kṛṣigorakṣamāsthāya jīved vaiśyasya jīvikām ||82||

If he is unable to subsist by these two occupations, and the question arises as to how it should be, — he may live the living of the Vaiśya, having recourse to agriculture and cattle-tending. — (82)

Medhātithi’s commentary (manubhāṣya):

‘If he is unable to subsist by these two occupations.’ The text is meant to lay clown a distinct order of sequence; at first he is to adopt, the occupation of the caste next to him, and then that of the caste removed a degree further.

The mention of ‘agriculture and cattle-tending’ is meant to stand for all the occupations of the Vaiśya. That is why trading is also permitted, in view of which the author is going to forbid (in 85, et. seq.) the selling of certain things by the Brāhmaṇa.

‘He may live the living of the Vaiśya — The two acts (denoted by the terms ‘live’ and ‘living’) are spoken of as cause and effect, — one standing for the general act of living, and the other for the special forms of living.

Some people have held that from among the occupations of the Vaiśya, agriculture, trade, and money-lending have been permitted (for the Brāhmaṇa) even during normal times, — just like Teaching and other occupations — under verses 4.5 and 6. In Gautama (10.5 and 6) also we read — ‘Agriculture and trade done by himself, as also money-lending’; which permits the carrying on of agriculture and trade by the Brāhmaṇa himself.

As for the view that these stand on the same footing as Teaching and other occupations (of the Brāhmaṇa himself), — this has been refuted by us already. If agriculture and other occupations of the Vaiśya stood for all three castes, on exactly the same footing, — then, why should ‘trade, cattle-tending and agriculture’ have been mentioned as the most useful occupation ‘for the Vaiśya’ (verse 79)? And for the Brāhmaṇa and the Kṣatriya also, these should not have been mentioned as to be adopted only under the stress of want of livelihood; in fact they should have been mentioned along with ‘Teaching, sacrificing for others and receiving gifts from pure men’ (76) [which have been mentioned as the special occupations of the Brāhmaṇa].

The conclusion therefore is that so long as the Brāhmaṇa can make a living by teaching and the other occupations laid down for himself, agriculture and the rest are forbidden to him. As regards the texts (4. 5 and 6) permitting these latter for the Brāhmaṇa, the real meaning of this we have already explained under those texts. — (82)

Explanatory notes by Ganganath Jha:

Nārāyaṇa thinks that ‘Kṛṣi’ means here that agriculture whereat the Brāhmaṇa himself does not do any manual work; bat Govindarāja and Kullūka reject this view.

This verse is quoted in Mitākṣarā, (3.35), to the; effect that in abnormal times for purposes of livelihood the Br āh maṇa may have recourse to the functions of the Vaiśya, but never to those of the Śūdra; — in Madanapārijāta, (p. 232); — and in Nṛsiṃhaprasāda (Āhnika, 36b).

Comparative notes by various authors:

(verses 10.81-84)

See Comparative notes for Verse 10.81.

VERSE 10.83

Section IX - Variations in the Functions of the Brāhmaṇa due to Abnormal Conditions

वैश्यवृत्त्याऽपि जीवंस्तु ब्राह्मणः क्षत्रियोऽपि वा ।
हिंसाप्रायां पराधीनां कृषिं यत्नेन वर्जयेत् ॥८३॥

vaiśyavṛttyā'pi jīvaṃstu brāhmaṇaḥ kṣatriyo'pi vā |
hiṃsāprāyāṃ parādhīnāṃ kṛṣiṃ yatnena varjayet ||83||

But even when subsisting by the occupation of the Vaiśya, the Brāhmaṇa or the Kṣatriya shall carefully avoid agriculture, which involves injury to living creatures and is dependent upon others. — (83)

Medhātithi’s commentary (manubhāṣya):

This deprecation of Agriculture is meant to eulogise the other occupations of the Vaiśya, and to forbid agriculture itself. If it had been to be entirely forbidden, the permitting of it (under 82) would become absolutely pointless. — (83)

Explanatory notes by Ganganath Jha:

This verse is quoted in Aparārka, (p. 936), to the effect that even when taking to the Vaiśya’s livelihood, the Brāhmaṇa shall avoid cultivating land himself; — and in Parāśaramādhava (Ācara, p. 426), as prohibiting the Brāhmaṇa’s cultivation of land by himself.

Comparative notes by various authors:

(verses 10.81-84)

See Comparative notes for Verse 10.81.

VERSE 10.84

Section IX - Variations in the Functions of the Brāhmaṇa due to Abnormal Conditions

कृषिं साधुइति मन्यन्ते सा वृत्तिः सद्विगर्हिताः ।
भूमिं भूमिशयांश्चैव हन्ति काष्ठमयोमुखम् ॥८४॥

kṛṣiṃ sādhuiti manyante sā vṛttiḥ sadvigarhitāḥ |
bhūmiṃ bhūmiśayāṃścaiva hanti kāṣṭhamayomukham ||84||

People think agriculture to be good; but that occupation is despised by the righteous; the iron-tipped wood injures the earth and the earthly creatures. — (84)

Medhātithi’s commentary (manubhāṣya):

People think agriculture to be a good occupation; one who carries on agricultural operations obtains much grain, whereby he feeds guests; that is why it is ‘good.’ To the same end we have such assertions as — ‘He who does not till the ground is not loved by his guests,’ ‘one should carefully carry on agricultural operations,’ and ‘the plough, the spear, tills the soil etc., etc.,’ (Vājasaneya Saṃhitā, 12.71)

This view however is not the right one to take. This is an occupation that is despised by the righteous; — and the reason for this lies in the fact that ‘the iron-tipped wood’ — the plough — ‘injures the Earth and the earthly creatures,’ — i.e., those creatures that live under the ground, e.g., the caterpillar and the rest.

“What sort of injury is inflicted on the Earth? The Earth certainly does not suffer pain, like the living creatures, by the stroke of the wooden implement.”

What the text means is that the Earth does suffer pain, and thereby forbids all tearing of the ground. — (84)

Explanatory notes by Ganganath Jha:

This verse is quoted in Parāśaramādhava (Ācāra, p. 426); — and in Aparārka, (p. 937) as supplying the reason for forbidding land-cultivation by the Brāhmaṇa.

Comparative notes by various authors:

(verses 10.81-84)

See Comparative notes for Verse 10.81.

VERSE 10.85

Section IX - Variations in the Functions of the Brāhmaṇa due to Abnormal Conditions

इदं तु वृत्तिवैकल्यात् त्यजतो धर्मनैपुणम् ।
विट्पण्यमुद्धृतोद्धारं विक्रेयं वित्तवर्धनम् ॥८५॥

idaṃ tu vṛttivaikalyāt tyajato dharmanaipuṇam |
viṭpaṇyamuddhṛtoddhāraṃ vikreyaṃ vittavardhanam ||85||

But there is this, that one who, under the stress of livelihood, renounces the strictness concerning his duties, may, for increasing his wealth, sell such commodities as are sold by Vaiśyas, with certain exceptions. — (85)

Medhātithi’s commentary (manubhāṣya):

‘This’ — refers to what follows.

‘Such commodities as are sold by Vaiśyas.’ — If the Brāhmaṇa has no wealth, he may, if pressed for livelihood, sell such things as are permitted to be sold by Vaiśyas.

‘Exceptions.’ — This term stands for the commodities excluded. ‘With certain exceptions’; — from which certain articles are excluded. The Brāhmaṇa may sell the things, with the exception of those hereinafter enumerated.

‘For increasing his wealth.’ — This describes the nature of things; it being well known that trade is conducive to increased wealth.

‘Renounces the strictness concerning his duties,’ — i.e., his strict regard for his duty. This implies that as a rule the said selling should not be done; and the upshot of all this is that from out of the several occupations of the Vaiśya, Agriculture is the worst for the Brāhmaṇa, then trade, and then cattletending and the rest — (85)

Comparative notes by various authors:

(verses 10.85-93)

Gautama (7.8-15). — ‘Goods not to be sold by the Brāhmaṇa are — perfumes, flavouring substances, prepared food, sesamum, hempen and linen cloth, skins, garments dyed red or washed, milk and preparations of it, roots, fruits, flowers, medicines, honey, flesh, grass, water, poisons, animals for slaughter; nor under any circumstances, human beings, heifers, female calves, cows big with young. Some declare that traffic in land, rice, barley, goats, sheep, horses, hulls, milch cows and draught oxen is also forbidden.’

Āpastamba (1.20.10-13). — ‘Trade is not lawful for a Brāhmaṇa; — in times of distress he may trade in lawful merchandise, avoiding the following, that are forbidden — men, condiments and liquids, colours, perfumes, food, skins, heifers, glueing substances, water, young corn-stalks, substances from which spirituous liquor is extracted, red and black pepper, corn, flesh, arms, and the hope of reward for meritorious deeds. Among the various kinds of grains, he shall specially not sell sesamum or rice.

Yājñavalkya (3.6-38). — ‘Fruits, stones, linen, Soma, human beings, cakes, plants, sesamum, rice, liquids, curds, milk, clarified butter, water, arms, wine, wax, honey, lac, grass, clay, skins, flowers, blankets, hairs, Takra, poisons, land, silken cloth, indigo, salt, one-hoofed animals, lead, vegetable, pepper, medicines, oil-cake, animals, perfumes, — these the Brāhmaṇa should never sell, even when living by the occupations of the Vaiśya. But sesamum may be sold for religious purposes, in exchange of paddy.’

Baudhāyana (2.2.27-29). — ‘He who sells sesamum, forsooth, sells his ancestors; he who sells rice, forsooth, sells his life; he who gives away his daughter, making a bargain, forsooth, sells portions of his spiritual merit. Grass and wood in their natural state may be sold. They quote the following — “Animals that have only one row of teeth, as well as minerals excepting salt, and undyed thread, — these, O Brāhmaṇa, are the goods thou art permitted to sell.”’

Vaśiṣṭha (2.24-31). — ‘A Brāhmaṇa and a Kṣatriya, who have resorted to a Vaiśya’s mode of living and maintain themselves by trade, shall not sell stones, salt, hempen cloth, silk, linen and skins; nor any kind of dyed clothing; nor prepared food, flowers, fruit, roots, perfumes, substances (used for) flavouring (food); nor water, the juice extracted from plants; nor Soma, weapons, poison, nor flesh, nor milk, nor preparations of it, iron, tin, lac, and lead. Now they quote also (the following verse): By (selling) flesh, lac, and salt a Brāhmaṇa at once becomes an outcast; by selling milk he becomes (equal to) a Śūdra after three days. Among tame animals those with uncloven hoofs, and those that have an abundance of hair (must not be sold), nor any wild animals, (nor) birds, nor beasts that have tusks (or fangs). Among the various kinds of grain they mention sesamum (as forbidden). Now they quote also (the following verse) — If he applies sesamum to any other purpose but food, anointing and charitable gifts, he will be born again as a worm and, together with his ancestors, be plunged into his own ordure. — Or, at pleasure, they may sell (sesamum), if they themselves have produced it by tillage.’

Viṣṇu (54.18-21). — ‘He who sells fresh ginger, edible plants, perfumes, flowers, fruits, roots, skins, canes, things made of split bamboo, chaff, potsherds, hair, ashes, bone, cow-milk or curds, oil-cakes, sesamum or oil, must perform the Prājāpatya. He who sells the fruit of the śleśmātaka tree, lac, bees-wax, shells, mother-o-pearl, tin, lead, iron, copper, or sacrificial vessels made of rhinoceros’ horn, must perform the Cāndrāyaṇa. He who sells dyed cloth, tin, precious stones, perfumes, sugar, honey, liquids or condiments, or wool must fast for three days. He who sells meat, salt, lac or milk must perform the Cāndrāyaṇa. And all these persons should undergo initiation a second time.’

VERSE 10.86

Section IX - Variations in the Functions of the Brāhmaṇa due to Abnormal Conditions

सर्वान् रसानपोहेत कृतान्नं च तिलैः सह ।
अश्मनो लवणं चैव पशवो ये च मानुषाः ॥८६॥

sarvān rasānapoheta kṛtānnaṃ ca tilaiḥ saha |
aśmano lavaṇaṃ caiva paśavo ye ca mānuṣāḥ ||86||

He shall avoid all savoury substances as also cooked food and sesamum, stores, salt, animals and human beings. — (86)

Medhātithi’s commentary (manubhāṣya):

There are six flavours, rasas, — sweet and the rest; and the term ‘rasa,’ ‘savoury substances’ here stands for substances abounding in one or other of these flavours; such as sugar, pomegranate, the ‘kirāta,’ the ‘tiktaka’ and so forth; all these are forbidden; and not only those that are made of the juices extracted from the trees etc., (which is the literal meaning of ‘rasa’). Though the term ‘rasa’ is not used directly in the sense of substance, in the way in which ‘white’ and such terms are, yet it indirectly indicates it; just as in the case of the expression ‘the ranch on the Gaṅgā,’ (the term ‘Gaṅgā’ indicates the river-bank).

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