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It is quoted in Mitākṣarā (on 3.54), which explains ‘muniḥ’ as ‘observing the vow of silence’; and adds that in the event of his being unable to get roots and fruits, he may beg from the houses of other hermits, just enough to keep himself alive.

It is quoted in Parāśaramādhava (Ācāra, p. 531).

Comparative notes by various authors:

Āpastamba (2.21.21). — ‘He shall keep only one fire, have no house, enjoy no pleasures, have no protector, observe silence, uttering speech only on the occasion of the daily recitation of the Veda.’

Vaśiṣṭha (9.11.12). — ‘After six months, he shall live at the root of a tree, keeping no fire and no house. He who makes offerings to gods, Pitṛs and men will attain endless heaven.’

Yājñavalkya (3.54.55). — ‘Absorbing the fires within himself, living under a tree, eating measuredly, he shall beg alms only from the houses of hermits.’

VERSE 6.26

Section III - Details of the Hermit’s Life

अप्रयत्नः सुखार्थेषु ब्रह्मचारी धराऽऽशयः ।
शरणेष्वममश्चैव वृक्षमूलनिकेतनः ॥२६॥

aprayatnaḥ sukhārtheṣu brahmacārī dharā''śayaḥ |
śaraṇeṣvamamaścaiva vṛkṣamūlaniketanaḥ ||26||

Making no effort to obtain pleasure-giving objects, and maintaining celibacy, he shall sleep on the ground; and not caring for shelter, he shall have the roots of trees for his dwelling. — (26).

Medhātithi’s commentary (manubhāṣya):

He shall make no effort to obtain things that give pleasure; e.g., troubled by heat, he shall not move into the shade, and troubled by cold, he shall not kindle fire. If, however, his sufferings are removed by such natural causes as the falling of the sun’s rays and the like, — this is not forbidden. This rule refers to seasons other than the rains; because special rules have been prescribed with special reference to this latter Reason.

Or, the text may be taken as prohibiting the use of medicines by the hermit if he happen to fall ill, — being cured of disease also being a kind of ‘pleasure;’ hence he shall not make any effort to secure this pleasure.

‘Sleeping on the ground’; — i.e., he shall sleep on the ground, covered only with grass.

‘Shelter’ — dwelling-places, such as houses, tree-roots and so forth; — for these he shall not care; he shall not have any hankering after the possession of these.

He shall make the roots of trees his dwelling. In the event of their being not available, stone-slabs, mountain-caves and such places have also been ordained for him. — (26).

Explanatory notes by Ganganath Jha:

The first half of this verse is quoted in Parāśaramādhava (Ācāra, p. 531).

Comparative notes by various authors:

Vaśiṣṭha (9.5.11). — ‘He shall remain celibate. He shall live at the roots of a tree.’

Viṣṇu (94.7). — ‘He must preserve his celibacy.’

Yājñavalkya (3.45). — (See under 1.)

Yājñavalkya (3.51). — (See under 22.)

Do. (3.5.4). — (See under 25.)

VERSE 6.27

Section III - Details of the Hermit’s Life

तापसेष्वेव विप्रेषु यात्रिकं भैक्षमाहरेत् ।
गृहमेधिषु चान्येषु द्विजेषु वनवासिषु ॥२७॥

tāpaseṣveva vipreṣu yātrikaṃ bhaikṣamāharet |
gṛhamedhiṣu cānyeṣu dvijeṣu vanavāsiṣu ||27||

He shall receive alms just enough for subsistence, only from brāhmaṇa-hermits, or from such twice-born householders as live in the forests. — (27).

Medhātithi’s commentary (manubhāṣya):

The Locative ending in ‘tāpaseṣu’ &c. has the sense of the Ablative; meaning ‘from hermits’ — ‘he shall receive alms’, — in the event of his being unable to obtain fruits and roots; — ‘or from such householders as live in the forests’.

‘Enough for subsistence’; — what is just sufficient to satisfy his hunger. — (27).

In the absence of such alms. —

Explanatory notes by Ganganath Jha:

This verse is quoted in Aparārka (p. 945) as laying down the means of subsistence for the Hermit, in the event of his being unable to obtain fruits and roots.

Comparative notes by various authors:

Yājñavalkya (3.54). — (See under 25.)

VERSE 6.28

Section III - Details of the Hermit’s Life

ग्रामादाहृत्य वाऽश्नीयादष्टौ ग्रासान् वने वसन् ।
प्रतिगृह्य पुटेनैव पाणिना शकलेन वा ॥२८॥

grāmādāhṛtya vā'śnīyādaṣṭau grāsān vane vasan |
pratigṛhya puṭenaiva pāṇinā śakalena vā ||28||

While dwelling in the forest, he may bring food from the village, — receiving it either in his hollowed hand or in a potsherd, — and eat eight morsels. — (28).

Medhātithi’s commentary (manubhāṣya):

The use of the term ‘morsel’ implies that the alms are not to consist of fruits and roots only. In fact the present text permits the use of cultivated grains, in the absence of wild ones.

Receiving the alms either ‘in the hollowed hand’ — without a dish — or in a piece of broken earthenware, dish, &c. — (28).

Explanatory notes by Ganganath Jha:

This verse is quoted in Parāśaramādhava (Ācāra, p. 531); — and in Nṛsiṃhaprasāda (Saṃskāra, p. 68b).

Comparative notes by various authors:

Viṣṇu (94.13). — ‘Or, the hermit may bring food from a village, placing it in a dish made of leaves, or on a single leaf, or in his hand, or in a potsherd, and eat eight mouthfuls of it.

Yājñavalkya (3.55). — ‘Or, he shall get food from a village and with speech controlled, shall eat eight mouthfuls.’

VERSE 6.29

Section III - Details of the Hermit’s Life

एताश्चान्याश्च सेवेत दीक्षा विप्रो वने वसन् ।
विविधाश्चौपनिषदीरात्मसंसिद्धये श्रुतीः ॥२९॥

etāścānyāśca seveta dīkṣā vipro vane vasan |
vividhāścaupaniṣadīrātmasaṃsiddhaye śrutīḥ ||29||

The Brāhmaṇa dwelling in the forest shall attend to these and other restraints; and also to the several Vedic texts contained in the Upaniṣads, in order to attain the Self. — (29).

Medhātithi’s commentary (manubhāṣya):

These ‘restraints’ — observances and ‘others’ — such as standing in water, keeping the eyes closed and so forth.

‘Vedic texts contained in the Upaniṣads.’ — He shall study the texts contained in the esoteric sections of the Veda, and think of them and ponder over them;‘in order to attain the Self’.

Or this may refer to the several forms of worship that have been laid down for attaining Brahman.

‘Several’ — this is a mere re-iteration. — (29).

Explanatory notes by Ganganath Jha:

This verse is quoted in Aparārka (p. 943), which explains ‘dīkṣā’ as ‘determination to keep the penances’; — and ‘saṃsiddhi’ as ‘well-defined cognition’; — in Mitākṣarā (on 3.51), which explains ‘ātmasamsiddhi’ as ‘the attaining of Brahman’; — and in Parāśaramādhava (Ācāra, p. 531).

VERSE 6.30

Section III - Details of the Hermit’s Life

ऋषिभिर्ब्राह्मणैश्चैव गृहस्थैरेव सेविताः ।
विद्यातपोविवृद्ध्यर्थं शरीरस्य च शुद्धये ॥३०॥

ṛṣibhirbrāhmaṇaiścaiva gṛhasthaireva sevitāḥ |
vidyātapovivṛddhyarthaṃ śarīrasya ca śuddhaye ||30||

Such of these as have been attended to by sages and Brāhmaṇa householders, for the advancement of knowledge and austerities, and also for the purification of the body — (30).

Medhātithi’s commentary (manubhāṣya):

It has just been stated in general terms that ‘he shall attend to others’; this might be taken to imply the propriety of practising the restraints and observances laid down in the ‘Śākya’, the‘Pāśupata’ and other heterodox scriptures. Hence the present verse is added for the purpose precluding these.

‘By sages.’ — The Mahābhārata describes several restraints and observances practised by the ancient sages.

Those attended to by ‘Brāhmaṇa-householders’; — as has been declared under Gautama (3.9) — This refers to those coming later, also, because there is no incompatibility in this.’

‘Knowledge’ — the realising of the unity of the Self; this one should ‘advance’ — confirm, strengthen — by the study of the Veda.

‘For the purification of the body’ — he should attend to the restraints relating to the regulation of food — (30).

Explanatory notes by Ganganath Jha:

‘Brāhmaṇaiḥ gṛhasthaiḥ’ — Medhātithi takes the two together, in the sense of ‘Brāhmaṇa-householders’; — Kullūka and Govindarāja take them separately, in the sense of ‘(1) sages knowing the Brahman and (2) hermits.’

This verse is quoted in Aparārka (p. 943).

VERSE 6.31

Section III - Details of the Hermit’s Life

अपराजितां वाऽस्थाय व्रजेद् दिशमजिह्मगः ।
आ निपातात्शरीरस्य युक्तो वार्यनिलाशनः ॥३१॥

aparājitāṃ vā'sthāya vrajed diśamajihmagaḥ |
ā nipātātśarīrasya yukto vāryanilāśanaḥ ||31||

Or, having fixed upon the North-Easterly direction, he shall go forward, moving straight on, intent and living upon water and air, — till the falling off of his body. — (31).

Medhātithi’s commentary (manubhāṣya):

The ‘Aparājitā’ is the name of the North-Easterly direction, known among the people as ‘Aiśānī’; — ‘Having fixed upon’ this direction — as “this is the direction towards which I shall go’, — he should proceed towards it.

‘Moving straight on’ — not swerving from his path, not seeking to avoid even rivers and streams. This is a rule laying down the going towards the North-East.

‘Intent, living upon water and air, till the falling off of the body.’ — That is, until the body falls off, he shall live upon air and on water.

‘Intent’, — having concentrated himself by the rules of Yoga.

This refers to the ‘Grand Journey’ (towards certain death). — (31).

Explanatory notes by Ganganath Jha:

‘Yuktaḥ’ — ‘Intent on the practice of yoga’ (Govindarāja and Kullūka), — ‘firmly resolved’ (Nārāyaṇa and Rāghavānaṇda).

This verse is quoted in Aparārka (p. 945), which adds the following notes: — ‘yuktaḥ’ means ‘samāhitaḥ’, ‘intent, calm, collected’; this teaching regarding the ‘Great Journey’ is only by way of an illustration for all such means of self-immolation as burning, drowning and the like.

It is quoted in Mitākṣarā (on 3.55); — and in Hemādri (Śrāddha, p. 1660), which explains ‘aparājitā’ as ‘the north-easterly direction,’ — towards that he should go straight on, till his body falls, living upon water and air and with mind duly concentrated and calm.

Comparative notes by various authors:

(verses 6.31-32)

Baudhāyana (3.3.10.11, 12). — ‘The hermits called Unmajjakas avoid iron and stone implements; those called Pravṛttāśins take food with the hand; those called Mukhenādāyins take it with the mouth only.’

Āpastamba (2.23 also 2.22.24). — ‘Then he shall live on water, then on air and finally on Ākaśa: — each succeeding method bringing a greater reward.’

Yājñavalkya (3.55). — ‘Eating air, he shall proceed towards the North-East till his body perishes.’

Smṛtyantara (Aparārka, p. 945). — ‘The hermit shall undertake either the Long Journey, or drown in water or enter the fire, or fall from a precipice.’

VERSE 6.32

Section III - Details of the Hermit’s Life

आसां महर्षिचर्याणां त्यक्त्वाऽन्यतमया तनुम् ।
वीतशोकभयो विप्रो ब्रह्मलोके महीयते ॥३२॥

āsāṃ maharṣicaryāṇāṃ tyaktvā'nyatamayā tanum |
vītaśokabhayo vipro brahmaloke mahīyate ||32||

Having discarded his body by one of these methods adopted by the Great Sages, the Brāhmaṇa, with sorrow and fear departed, becomes exalted in the region of Brahman. — (32).

Medhātithi’s commentary (manubhāṣya):

The austerities spoken of above and the ‘Grand Journey’ just spoken of constitute ‘the methods adopted by the Great Sages.’ By ‘one of these’ — by drowning in a river, by falling from a precipice, by burning one self by fire, by starving one’self to death — one should discard his body.

The result of this is that ‘with sorrow and fear departed’ he reaches the regions of Brahman. ‘Sorrow’ consists in the experiencing of the sufferings of hell, etc., — ‘Fear’ — of going to hell. Both these disappear for the man; and directly — not having to pass through the several stages of Light, etc. — he goes to the region of Brahman.

The ‘region of Brahman’ is a particular place, superior than Heaven itself; and in that ‘he becomes exalted’ — remains to honoured. This does not mean that he obtains the ‘Selfsovereignty’ of Brahman; since the text distinctly adds the term ‘region’; specially as Liberation is going to be spoken as being led to from the fourth Life-stage.

They say that Liberation is not attained by mere Action.

But this is not right; since in this very work it has been said — ‘he should study the Vedic texts contained in the Upaniṣads in order to attain the Self’; and ‘attainment of the Self’ is nothing more than meditating,’ upon the Self and thereby becoming absorbed in it; there can be no other meaning of the term ‘attain’. And further what is to be meditated upon by yogins in connection with the Upaniṣad-texts is the Self: — ‘One fixed in Brahman reaches immortality’, ‘he becomes absorbed therein’ and so forth.

It might be argued that — “there are other forms of success proceeding from austerities, spoken of in such texts as ‘if he is desirous of reaching the regions of the Pitṛs etc. etc.’; wherein we find it stated that man can attain that degree of greatness which belongs to Brahman, and which is acquired by his determined activity; but this cannot be Liberation.”

But this is not right. Because there is no distinction made. The man of action is just as much entitled to ‘Immortality’ (which is Liberation) as to the forms of worship leading to inferior results. It is nowhere declared that those forms of worship which relate to Non-duality shall be followed by the Renunciate only.

“But, having declared that ‘there are three departments of Dharma’, the Upaniṣad (Chāndogya) names ‘sacrifice, study and charity’, which represent the duties of the Householder; then it mentions ‘austerity’ which refers to the Hermit; then it speaks of the‘Student dwelling in the Teacher’s house’, which refers to the Life-long Student; and lastly it mentions ‘one who is fixed in Brahman’, and this refers to the Renunciate. Further on, it declares that the former three lead to ‘sacred regions’; from which it follows that it is the remaining fourth, the Renunciate, who attains Immortality.”

Not so at all; the term ‘brahmasaṃstha’, ‘fixed in Brahman’, is used in its literal sense of ‘one who is given up to meditating upon Brahman’ [and this has no reference to any particular stage of life].

“If all men were equally entitled to it, then all that the Upaniṣad need have said is ‘one who is fixed in Brahman reaches Immortality’ [and nothing need have been said regarding the three life-stages]”.

Not so; what the passage means is that, — ‘the several life-stages lead to sacred regions, which constitutes the result mentioned in connection with the Injunctions relating to the stages; but if, while still in the same stages, if a man fixes himself upon Brahman, he attains Immortality, which means non-return to birth.’

“Those who know the Self have declarered that Brahman is non-dual; and It is also called ‘one in whom all activity has ceased’; the Life-stages on the other hand, all constitute the path of activity, consisting of the performance of various acts leading up to various results; so that there is a clear incompatibility between the ‘knowing of the non-dual Self’ and the performance of the Agnihotra and other rites, which are inseparable from the stages of the Householder &c., and which are all based upon notions of diversity

Our answer to this is as follows: — This would be equally applicable to Renunciation also, which also consists of restraints and observances, which presuppose diversity.

It might be argued that — “For the man who has renounced all activity and entered the path of Inaction, there are no scriptural injunctions at all”.

Such certainly is not the meaning of the scriptures. Renunciation is going to be described as ‘the surrendering of the notions of I and mine’, and not the abandoning of all that is enjoined by the scriptures. Further, in connection with the Renunciate also, when he is hungry and goes about begging food, the notion of action and agent is always present. Under the circumstances, what reasonable man could assert that — “in the case of the Renunciate there is no incompatibility between his engaging in the said acts pertaining to the ordinary worldly life and his realising of the non-dual Brahman, — while there is a clear incompatibility between this latter and the performance of the Agnihotra and other acts prescribed by the scriptures”?

The following argument may here be put forward “When the Renunciate is hungry and engages himself in eating, there is certainly incompatibility between this act and his knowledge of Self; but this incompatibility or incongruity lasts during that time only; just when a man walks in the dark he may put hist foot upon thorny places; but when the sun rises and he obtains sufficient light, he places his foot only upon the right path, which is free from thorns; in the same manner, during the time that the man is suffering from hunger, he loses sight of his knowledge of Self; but as soon as the cessation of hunger comes about, like light in the other case, his firm conviction regarding the Self reasserts itself and the man regains his knowledge”.

The same may be said regarding the Hermit also.

For the Householder also, there would be nothing incongruous in his attending to his wife and children and also meditating upon Brahman.

“But how can the man of manifold activities, who has become identified with diversity, ever obtain conviction regarding Non-duality”?

In connection with the duties of the Householder also it has been laid down that — ‘he shall meditate in solitude’ (4.248), and ‘having made over eveything to his son &c.’ (4.247)

“It has been declared in the Śruti that ‘the man desiring heaven should not die before the span of his lift; has run out how then can there beany ‘giving up of the body’ for the Hermit? It is not possible for the present text to restrict this Śruti- text to cases other than that of the Hermit. Because the Śruti is more authoritative, and as such, could not be restricted in its scope by the Smṛti.”

There would be no going against the said Śruti if the man were to seek death when his body is torn up by old age and by sorrows and he knows that death is near at hand. What the

Śruti says is ‘before the span of his life has run out’; where as if dying were not considered right under nay and every circumstances, then it would have simply said ‘one desirous of heaven should not die.’ Further, the Upaniṣads speak of several signs of approaching death; and these also have their use in connection with the Śruti in question; the sense being that ‘unless a man knows of impending death by means of such signs he shall not seek to die.” — (32)

Explanatory notes by Ganganath Jha:

‘Āsām anyatamayā’ — ‘The aforesaid austerities as also the Great Journey’ (Medhātithi); so also ‘others.’ There is no difference of opinion among the commentators, as Buhler makes out,

Hopkins is wrong in translating ‘bhṛguprapāta’ as ‘drowning;’ — Buhler has understood it rightly to mean ‘precipitating himself from a mount.’

This verse is quoted in Mitākṣarā (on 3.55), winch adds the following notes: — The ‘brahmoloka’ here meant is not ‘the eternal Brahman’, but a particular region; otherwise there would be no sense in the adding of the term ‘loka’; also because Liberation (which would be the ‘reaching of the eternal Brahman’) is not held to be attained without the fourth Life-stage of Renunciation; as is clear from the Śruti text (Chāndogya) which speaks of the first three life-stages as ‘puṇyalokāḥ’, ‘leading to sacred regions’, and of the ‘Brahmasaṃstha’ (Renunciate) alone as attaining immortality.’

This verse is quoted in Parāśaramādhava (Ācāra, p. 5.31); — in Aparārka (p. 945), which adds that the ‘methods’ referred to are those described under verse 23 et. seq. it adds that all that has been prescribed under the ‘duties of the Religious Student’ has to be followed by the Householder, the Hermit and the Renunciate also, in so far as it does not militate against anything that has been prescribed specifically for any of these.

It is quoted in Nirṇayasindhu (p. 398).

Comparative notes by various authors:

(verses 6.31-32)

See Comparative notes for Verse 6.31.

VERSE 6.33 [The Renunciate]

Section XIV - The Renunciate

वनेषु च विहृत्यैवं तृतीयं भागमायुषः ।
चतुर्थमायुषो भागं त्यक्वा सङ्गान् परिव्रजेत् ॥३३॥

vaneṣu ca vihṛtyaivaṃ tṛtīyaṃ bhāgamāyuṣaḥ |
caturthamāyuṣo bhāgaṃ tyakvā saṅgān parivrajet ||33||

Having thus passed the third part of his life in the forest, the man shall, during the fourth part, renounce all attachments and go forth (a wandering mendicant). — (33)

Medhātithi’s commentary (manubhāṣya):

Henceforward we have the description of the fourth life-stage.

‘Third part.’ — i.e, having remained, in the forest for some time; for such time as would suffice for the due performance of austerities and the proper allayment of longing for objects of enjoyment. The phrase cannot be taken as standing precisely for the exact ‘third part’ of the man’s life; because the period of the life-stage is not determined precisely with reference to one hundred years (the alleged span of man’s life); because the time for entering on the third life-stage has been indicated as that marked by the appearance of ‘wrinkles and grey hair’; and in every man these do not always appear at the completion of fifty years. Then again, elsewhere it has been declared that ‘one should go forth on the completion of his austerities’.

“In the case of the other life-stages the time has been precisely indicated — e.g. (a) Studentship shall continue till the Veda has been got up, (b) the life of the Householder shall continue till the appearance of wrinkles and grey hairs; in the present instance however no such time is indicated; whether we take it to be the ‘third part’ as asserted in the present text, or ‘on the completion of austerities,’ — even so we stand in need of information regarding the exact time meant; for there is no knowing by what time one’s austerities might be completed. For these reasons it is necessary that the time should be indicated by the words of the text”

It has already been explained that the ‘third part of life’ cannot be determined with reference to ‘a hundred years’; and as regards the exact time, it has been clearly indicated by such words as — ‘one should take to the life of the Wandering Mendicant after the body has fully ripened’; which means that ‘one should go forth after he has performed enough austerities, and till sufficiently advanced age, to be convinced that there is no more chance of any recrudescence of the passions.’

‘Having passed’ — having lived through; i.e. having carried on the duties as detailed above.

‘Renouncing of attachment’ consists in not harbouring notions of I and mine, in resting within one’s self. — (33).

Explanatory notes by Ganganath Jha:

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