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Understand briefly these (following) eight forms of marriage of girls, among the four castes, — which are beneficial and not-beneficial here (in this life) and also after death. — (20)

Medhātithi’s commentary (manubhāṣya):

This is a brief re-capitulation of what is going to be described in detail.

‘Beneficial and not-beneficial’ — Some marriages are beneficial, while others are not so.

‘Eight’ — this mentions the number.

‘Marriage of girls’ — i.e., marriage which serves as the sacramental rite for girls.

“What is it that is called Marriage?”

It is the name given to a sacramental rite performed for the girl, obtained by certain means, which serves to make her a wife.

A girl having been obtained by certain means, one performs for her, for the purpose of making her a wife, a sacramental rite, which ends with the seeing of the constellation of Ursa Major, and is marked by the holding of hands; and it is this rite, along with its entire procedure and subsidiary details, that is called ‘Marriage.’ — (20).

Explanatory notes by Ganganath Jha:

This verse is quoted in Parāśaramādhava (Ācāra, p. 485) as introducing the examination of the different kinds of marriage; — in Vīramitrodaya (Saṃskāra, p. 846) to the same effect; — in Hemādri (Dāna, p. 082); — and in Vyāvahāra-bālambhaṭṭī (p. 757).

Comparative notes by various authors:

(verses 3.20-21)

Baudhāyana (1. 11. 1). — ‘There are eight marriages.’

Vasiṣṭha (1.28-29). — ‘There are six marriages, — Brāhma, Daiva, Ārṣa, Gāndharva, Kṣātra, and Mānuśa.’

Śaṅkha (4. 2). — ‘Brāhma, Daiva, Ārṣa, Prājāpatya, Āsura, Gāndharva, Rākṣasa, and Paiśāca, the lowest is the eighth.’

Nārada (Vīramitrodaya-Saṃskāra, p. 846). — ‘Eight forms of marriage have been laid down as a sacrament for several castes: among these the Brāhma is the first, then comes the Prājāpatya, the Ārṣa, the Daiva, the Gāndharva, and the Āsura; then come the Rākṣasa and the Paiśāca; the eighth is the lowest.’

Hārīta (Do.). — ‘There are eight marriages; Brāhma, Daiva, Gāndharva, Āsura, Rākṣasa, Paiśāca, Mānuṣa and Kṣātra.’

Arthaśāstra (Part II, p. 12). — ‘When the girl is adorned and given away, it is the Brāhma form of marriage; — when the pair perform religious rites together, it is the Prājāpatya; when a pair of cows is received in exchange, it is the Ārṣa; when the girl is given away to the Priest within the altar, it is the Daiva; that which is accomplished by mutual consent is the Gāndharva; when the giver receives a fee, it is the Āsura; when the girl is taken away by force, it is the Rākṣasa; when the girl is taken away while asleep, it is the Paiśāca.’

Nārada (12. 38-53). — [38-39 as in the above-mentioned quotation from Vīramitrodaya; then] — ‘In the Brāhma form, a maiden decked with ornaments is given to the bridegroom, after he has been invited and honourably received by the father. When he has been received with the words — “Carry on your sacred duties together with her,” it is called the Prājāpatya form. When the father receives from the bridegroom, a dress, a bull and a cow, it is called the Ārṣa form. When she is given before the altar, to a priest officiating at a sacrifice, it is called the Daiva form. The union of a willing maiden with her lover is the fifth form called Gāndharva. When a price is asked for the bride by her father and received by him, it is the form called Āsura. The Rākṣasa form is declared to consist of the forcible abduction of a maiden. Sexual intercourse with a woman during her sleep, or while she is unconscious, constitutes the eighth form, the basest of all. Of these, the first four, beginning with the Brāhma, are declared to be lawful; the Gāndharva form is common to all castes; the three forms that come after it are unlawful. Besides the lawful wives, seven other kinds of wives are mentioned, who have been previously enjoyed by another man. Among those, the Punarbhū is of three kinds and the Svairiṇî of four kinds. A maiden, not actually deflowered, but only joined in wedlock to a former husband by the hand, is the first kind of Punarbhū. She is required to have the marriage-ceremony performed once more, with her second husband. One who, after having left her husband, and betaken herself to another man, returns to her husband, is called the second kind of Punarbhū. When a woman, on the failure of brothers-in-law, is delivered by her relations to a Sapiṇḍa of the same caste, she is called the third Punarbhū. When a woman, with or without children, goes to live with another man, through love, while her husband is alive, she is called the first Svairiṇī. When the woman, after the death of her husband, rejects her brother-in-law or other relations, and unites herself with a stranger, through love, she is called the second Svairiṇī. One who, having come from a foreign country, or having been purchased with money, or being oppressed with hunger or thirst, gives herself up to a man, saying “I am thine,” is called the third Svairiṇī. When a woman, after having been given in marriage, by her elders, in accordance with the custom of her country, becomes forcibly united with another man, she is called the fourth Svairiṇī.’

VERSE 3.21

Section IV - The Eight Forms of Marriage

ब्राह्मो दैवस्तथैवार्षः प्राजापत्यस्तथाऽसुरः ।
गान्धर्वो राक्षसश्चैव पैशाचश्चाष्टमोऽधमः ॥२१॥

brāhmo daivastathaivārṣaḥ prājāpatyastathā'suraḥ |
gāndharvo rākṣasaścaiva paiśācaścāṣṭamo'dhamaḥ ||21||

(1) The Brāhma, (2) the Daiva, (3) the Ārṣa, (1) the Prājāpatya, (5) the Āsura, (6) the Gāndharva, (7) the Rākṣasa and (8) the Paiśāca, which is the eighth and the lowest. — (21)

Medhātithi’s commentary (manubhāṣya):

These are the names of the eight forms of Marriage that were referred to in the preceding verse by the number ‘eight.’

‘Lowest’ — this has been added with a view to deprecate the Paiśāca form of marriage. — (21)

Explanatory notes by Ganganath Jha:

This verse is quoted in Vīramitrodaya (Saṃskāra, p. 846) as enumerating the different forms of marriage; — in Madanapārijāta (p. 155); — in Parāśaramādhava (Ācāra, p. 485); — in Vidhānapārijāta (p. 758); — in Saṃskāra-ratnamālā (p. 479); — in Nṛsiṃhaprasāda (Saṃskāra, p. 61a); — in Hemādri (Dāna, p. 682) — in Vyāvahāra Bālambhaṭṭī (p. 175); — in Saṃskāramayūkha (p. 99); — in Smṛticandrikā (Saṃskāra, p. 227); — and by Jīmūtavāhana (Dāyabhāga, p. 152).

Comparative notes by various authors:

(verses 3.20-21)

See Comparative notes for Verse 3.20.

VERSE 3.22

Section IV - The Eight Forms of Marriage

यो यस्य धर्म्यो वर्णस्य गुणदोषौ च यस्य यौ ।
तद् वः सर्वं प्रवक्ष्यामि प्रसवे च गुणागुणान् ॥२२॥

yo yasya dharmyo varṇasya guṇadoṣau ca yasya yau |
tad vaḥ sarvaṃ pravakṣyāmi prasave ca guṇāguṇān ||22||

Which (of these) is lawful for which caste, what are the good and bad points of each, the good and bad effects of each upon the offspring, — all this I shall explain to you. — (22)

Medhātithi’s commentary (manubhāṣya):

‘Lawful’ — that which is not fallen from the law; i.e., prescribed by the scriptures.

‘What are the good and bad points of each form’ — i.e., which points in each are conducive to desirable and which to undesirable results.

‘Offspring’ — i.e., in the birth of children.

‘Good effects’ — good qualities. ‘Bad effects’ — defects. In reality, the ‘good and bad effects,’ in the form of Heaven and Hell, pertain to the bridegroom; but here they stand for that which brings about these effects.

Though this is already implied in what has gone before (in the first line), yet it is mentioned again for the purpose of making the idea clearer. — (22)

Explanatory notes by Ganganath Jha:

This verse is quoted in Madanapārijāta (p. 155) as introducing the enumeration of the different forms of marriage.

Comparative notes by various authors:

Āpastamba (2. 12. 4). — ‘As the marriage so the offspring.’

Baudhāyana (1. 11. 17). — ‘It is well known that the offspring is in keeping with the form of marriage.’

Last Updated: 16 February, 2018

VERSE 3.23

Section IV - The Eight Forms of Marriage

षडानुपूर्व्या विप्रस्य क्षत्रस्य चतुरोऽवरान् ।
विश्।शूद्रयोस्तु तानेव विद्याद् धर्म्यानराक्षसान् ॥२३॥

ṣaḍānupūrvyā viprasya kṣatrasya caturo'varān |
viś|śūdrayostu tāneva vidyād dharmyānarākṣasān ||23||

One should know the first six in the order stated as lawful for the Brāhmaṇa, the last four for the Kṣatriya and those same, excepting the “Rākṣasa,” for the Vaiśya and the Śūdra. — (23).

Medhātithi’s commentary (manubhāṣya):

The first six forms of marriages, in the order in which they have been named above, are lawful for the Brāhmaṇa.

The term ‘Kṣatra’ stands for the Kṣatriya. For him ‘the last four;’ i.e., the ‘Āsura,’ the ‘Gāndharva,’ the ‘Rākṣasa,’ and the Paiśāca.’

For the Vaiśya and the Śūdra, ‘those same, excepting the Rākṣasa,’ i.e., leaving off the ‘Rākṣasa’ form. — (23)

Explanatory notes by Ganganath Jha:

This verse is quoted in Parāśaramādhava (Ācāra, p. 987), which adds the following explanation: — The six forms of marriage, from the beginning, are lawful for the Brāhmaṇa, the four beginning with ‘Āsura’ and ending with ‘Paiśāca’ for the Kṣatriya; these latter, with the exception of the ‘Rākṣasa’ are lawful for the Vaiśya and the Śūdra.

Aparārka (p. 91) quotes this and adds that those beginning with Brāhma and ending with Gāndharva are lawful for the Brāhmaṇa; and the ‘avarān’ — those named last are lawful for the Kṣatriya; and for the Vaiśya and Śūdra also these same, excepting the Rākṣasa.

Madanapārijāta (p. 158) quotes the verse and explains it to mean that the first six — i. e., ‘Brāhma’, ‘Daiva’, ‘Ārṣa’, ‘Prājāpatya’, ‘Āsura’ and ‘Gāndharva’ are, in the order stated, ‘lawful’ — i.e., not contrary to law — for the Brāhmaṇa.

Vīramitrodaya (Saṃskāra, p. 858) quotes the verse and having offered the same explanation as the above, adds that four of these are the principal forms recommended, and the other two are only secondary substitutes.

Nirṇayasindhu (p. 223) quotes the verse and explains that the ‘four’ meant are Āsura, Gāndharva, Rākṣasa and Paiśāca; these, excepting the Rākṣasa, are lawful for the Vaiśya and the Śūdra.

It is quoted in Saṃskāramayūkha (p. 100), which adds the following explanation: — For the Brāhmaṇa, only six forms are commended, beginning with the Brāhma and ending with the Gāndharva, the other two are not commended; — the four beginning with the Āsura are lawful for the Kṣatriya, — these same four, excepting Rākṣasa, for the Vaiśya and the Śūdra; — thus Rākṣasa is lawful for the Kṣatriya only; so that for the Brāhmaṇa there are only six, for the Kṣatriya all the eight; — and in Smṛticandrikā (Saṃskāra, p. 231), which also adds that only the first six. are lawful for the Brāhmaṇa, the latter four for the Kṣatriya, and for the Vaiśya, and the Śūdra also, all these with the exception of the Rākṣasa.

Comparative notes by various authors:

(verses 3.23-24)

Baudhāyana (1.11.10-14). — ‘Of these, four are commended for the Brāhmaṇa, of these the preceding being more commendable than the succeeding; and of the remaining four, the succeeding is more reprehensible than the preceding; of these again, the sixth and the seventh are in keeping with the character of the Kṣatriya, — and the fifth and the eighth for the Vaiśya and the Śūdra; because Vaiśyas and Śūdras have no restrictions regarding their wives.’

Śaṅkha (4.3). — ‘Among these the four mentioned first are lawful; the Gāndharva and the Rākṣasa are commended for the Kṣatriya.’

Gautama (4.14, 15). — ‘The first four are lawful; six, according to some.’

Viṣṇu (24.27, 28). — ‘Among these, the first four are lawful; the Gāndharva also, for Kṣatriyas.’

Āpastamba (2. 12. 3). — ‘Of these, the first three are commended, the preceding being more commendable than the succeeding.’

Mahābhārata (Ādi-parva, 73, 12). — ‘The Gāndharva and the Rākṣasa are lawful for the Kṣatriya.’

Mahābhārata (Vīramitrodaya-Saṃskāra, p. 859). — ‘O Yudhiṣṭhira, for the good Brāhmaṇas, the Brāhma form is the lawful one.’

Nārada (Vīramitrodaya-Saṃskāra, p. 859). — ‘The first four are commended for the Brāhmaṇa; the Gāndharva and the Rāksasa for the Kṣatriya, the Āsura for the Vaiśya, and the Śūdra; the last one has been condemned.’

Devala (Vīramitrodaya-Saṃskāra, p. 860). — ‘The first four forms of marriage are lawful, and conducive to water-libations; being free from fees and fit for Brāhmaṇas, they save both families.’

Smṛtyantara (Parāśaramādhava, p. 487). — ‘The first four are commended for the Brāhmaṇa; the Gāndharva and the Rākṣasa for the Kṣatriya, the Āsura for the Vaiśya and for the Śūdra; the eighth one is entirely condemned.’

Saṃvarta (Parāśaramādhava, p. 487). — ‘If a good girl be unobtainable by any means, than she may be married even by theft, while she may be alone.’

Arthaśāstra (Part 11, p. 13). — ‘Of these the first four are righteous, as authorised by the Father; the remaining (which are unrighteous) may be authorised by the Father and the Mother (who accept the fees).’

VERSE 3.24

Section IV - The Eight Forms of Marriage

चतुरो ब्राह्मणस्याद्यान् प्रशस्तान् कवयो विदुः ।
राक्षसं क्षत्रियस्यैकमासुरं वैश्यशूद्रयोः ॥२४॥

caturo brāhmaṇasyādyān praśastān kavayo viduḥ |
rākṣasaṃ kṣatriyasyaikamāsuraṃ vaiśyaśūdrayoḥ ||24||

The wise ones have regarded the first four as commended for the Brāhmaṇa, the Rākṣasa alone for the Kṣatriya and the Āsura for the Vaiśva and the Śūdra. — (24).

Medhātithi’s commentary (manubhāṣya):

The further recommendation of the ‘Brāhma’ and other three forms for the Brāhmaṇa, means that the ‘Āsura’ and the ‘Gāndharva’ are prohibited for him.

Similarly, for the Kṣatriya, it is the ‘Rākṣasa’ alone, not the ‘Āsura’ and the ‘Gāndharva.’

For the Vaiśya and the Śūdra, it is the ‘Āsura’ alone.

Among those that have been sanctioned (before) and prohibited now, there is to be option; so that one may have recourse to the optional forms only when those that have been sanctioned absolutely in all cases are not possible. If a man were to have recourse to those forms of marriage that have been sanctioned in one place and interdicted in another, without considering the possibility or otherwise of those that are absolutely sanctioned, — he would be committing a wrong, and his offspring would be defective; — this is what the law-giver has indicated under verse 23 above by the phrase, ‘the good and bad effects upon the offspring.’ But such an act would not nullify the marriage itself in the way in which the fact of the bride being the bridegroom’s ‘sapiṇḍa’ does. — (24)

Explanatory notes by Ganganath Jha:

‘For the Vaiśyas and Śūdras are not particular about their wives’ (Baudhāyana, 1.20.14). Cf. the following passages for the different rules in this respect. Vaśiṣṭha 1.27-28 gives six equivalents to these eight; so Āpastamba (2.12.3), who admits three as good. Baudhāyana 1.20.10 gives eight and permits but four; so Viṣṇu (24.27). Gautama gives the eight, admits four, and says some admit six. “The Mahābhārata (1.73.8 ff.) ascribes descending virtue to each ‘according to Manu’, and mixing up the sense of verse 23 and verse 27, allows four for a Brāhmaṇa and six for a Kṣatriya.” — Hopkins.

This verse is quoted in Parāśaramādhava (Ācāra, p. 487), as selecting out of the eight, those that are specially commended; — in Vīramitrodaya (Saṃskāra, p. 858), which adds that of the form specially commended for the Brāhmaṇa, two are still more important

Madanapārijāta (p. 159), adds the following note: — The Brāhma, Daiva, Ārṣa and Prājāpatya forms have been declared to be commended for the Brāhmaṇa; for the Kṣatriya, the Rākṣasa alone has been commended; and for the Vaiśya and Śūdra, the Āsura only. For the Brāhmaṇa the first four, ending with the Prājāpatya are the primary forms, and the Rākṣasa must be a secondary substitute for him, because it is lawful for the next lower caste, Kṣatriya. For the Kṣatriya, the Rākṣasa, is the primary form; and as according to the preceding verse, the Āsura, Gāndharva, Rākṣasa and Paiśāca are commended for him, the three, besides the Rākṣasa, must be regarded as secondary substitutes. According to others, however, the phrase ‘last four’ (of verse 23) stands for the four beginning with ‘Prājāpatya and according to this, the Rākṣasa being directly mentioned in the present verse as specially commended for the Kṣatriya, the secondary substitutes for him would be the Prājāpatya, the Gāndharva and the Āsura. For the Vaiśya and the Śūdra, the Āsura is the primary, and the Gāndharva and the Paiśāca, — or the Gāndharva and the Prājāpatya — secondary substitutes.

Smṛtitattva (II, p. 140) quotes this verse and explains that even though this text mentions among the ‘commended’ forms, the Āsura, where the bride’s father receives wealth from the bridegroom, yet it must be understood to sanction the payment of only so much of wealth as may be required for the decking of the bride. — It is quoted in Hemādri (Dana, p. 683); — in Saṃskāramayūkha (p. 100), which adds that for the Kṣatriya, the Rākṣasa is the principal form, and for the Vaiśya and the Śūdra, the Āsura.

Aparārka (p. 91) quotes this verse and adds that for the Brāhmaṇa, the Brāhma, Daiva, Ārṣa and Prājāpatya are commended; the Āsura and Gāndharva are neither commended nor forbidden; — for the Kṣatriya, the Rākṣasa alone is commended; the Āsura and the Gāndharva are neither commended nor forbidden; — for the Vaiśya and Śūdra, the Āsura alone is commended; the Gāndharva is neither commended nor forbidden; — the Paiśāca is forbidden for all castes.

It is quoted in Smṛticandrikā (Saṃskāra, pp. 190 and 231), which adds that though the first four are ‘commended,’ it does not mean that the next two are forbidden; all that is meant is that these two are not commended.

Comparative notes by various authors:

(verses 3.23-24)

See Comparative notes for Verse 3.23.

VERSE 3.25

Section IV - The Eight Forms of Marriage

पञ्चानां तु त्रयो धर्म्या द्वावधर्म्यौ स्मृताविह ।
पैशाचश्चासुरश्चैव न कर्तव्यौ कदा चन ॥२५॥

pañcānāṃ tu trayo dharmyā dvāvadharmyau smṛtāviha |
paiśācaścāsuraścaiva na kartavyau kadā cana ||25||

Of the five, three have been declared to be lawful and two unlawful, in this treatise; the Paiśāca and the Āsura forms should never be adopted.’ — (25)

Medhātithi’s commentary (manubhāṣya):

The law laid down in this verse pertains to the Kṣatriya and the rest, not to the Brāhmaṇa; for if it referred to the latter, there would be an inconsistency regarding the ‘Rākṣasa’ forms; as the Brāhmaṇa can never do the ‘killing and wounding’ (which are inevitable in that form), which acts are possible only for the Kṣatriya and others.

‘Of the five’ — Forms of marriage, beginning with the ‘Prājāpatya’ — three are lawful, and two — i.e., the Paiśāca and the Āsura — should never be adopted.

Though the ‘Prājāpatya’ has not been mentioned in connection with the Kṣatriya and others, yet it is here specially enjoined for them; so also the ‘Rākṣasa’ for the Vaiśya and the Śūdra. It is the Āsura and the Paiśāca that are interdicted.

The conclusion on this point is as follows: — For the Brāhmaṇa there are six forms of marriage; of these the ‘Brāhma’ is the best of all; inferior to that are the ‘Daiva’ and the ‘Prājāpatya;’ inferior to these is the Ārṣa, then the ‘Gāndharva,’ then the ‘Āsura.’

There are some people who regard this verse as pertaining to the Brāhmaṇa also. According to these, the ‘Rākṣasa’ form is permissible for that Brāhmaṇa who may have adopted the profession of the Kṣatriya. They argue that, even though the Brāhmaṇa may have abandoned his own functions and taken to those of other castes, if they do some ‘killing and wounding’ in connection with marriage, he may become liable to the performance of expiatory rites for doing those acts; but that would not deprive the ‘Rākṣasa marriage’ of the character of ‘marriage.’

That the ‘Brāhma’ is the best form of marriage has been shown by its results (described in versus 37, et seq.). As for the other three, though they have not been interdicted under any circumstances, yet their inferiority is deduced from the fact that the results following from them are of an inferior type. As regards the ‘Āsura’ form, since it has been specifically prescribed for the Vaiśya and the Śūdra, it implies the exclusion of the Brāhmaṇa and the Kṣatriya from it. And yet we have the distinct injunction of six forms as permitted for the Brāhmaṇa (in 23 above). From all which it follows that there is option; but it is an option with the restriction that one is to have recourse to the second option only in the event of the first option being impossible. Fur-ther, that an option is intended, is clearly established by the fact that several forms of marriage are permitted, and yet a combination of all is impossible; just as, in the case of Vrīhi and Yava, we admit an option, because both are sanctioned, and yet they cannot be combined. Thus, then, when other forms are possible, if one were to adopt the ‘Āsura’ form, its results, in regard to spiritual merit and the character of the offspring, would be inferior.

As regards the Kṣatriya, the ‘Rākṣasa’ form is the best; as it had been enjoined absolutely without any option by all the four verses. Verse 23 permits four forms for the Kṣatriya, which means that the ‘Āsura,’ the ‘Gāndharva,’ and the ‘Paiśāca’ also are permitted; while those latter have been interdicted by the assertion that the Rākṣasa alone is for the ‘Kṣatriya,’ (24). Hence it follows that these latter forms are optional, not primary. In consideration of the context, it is clear that the injunction is for the ‘Rākṣasa’ form only. But, since there is no definite exclusion of the ‘Prājāpatya’ form, this latter also is equal to the ‘Rākṣasa,’ for the Kṣatriya.

Similarly, for the Vaiśya and the Śūdra also, the ‘Prājāpatya,’ which has been mentioned as permitted in all cases, is not prohibited. The ‘Āsura’ and the ‘Paiśāca’ are both ‘permitted’ and ‘prohibited’ for them; the ‘Rākṣasa’ also has been interdicted by the phrase, ‘excepting the Rākṣasa’ (23), while it is permitted by the assertion that ‘three are lawful’ (25).

It is for the Brāhmaṇa only that the ‘Paiśāca’ is not permitted, and for the Kṣatriya and the rest, the ‘Brāhma,’ the ‘Daiva’ and the ‘Ārṣa’ are not permitted at all. — (25)

Explanatory notes by Ganganath Jha:

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