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Āpastamba-Dharmasūtra (4.13, 14, 16). — ‘Morning and evening, he should fetch a jar of water; — every day he should bring fuel from the forest and keep it on the ground; — having kindled the fire and swept round it, he should lay fuel on it, morning and evening, in accordance with the instructions he receives.’

Āpastamba-Dharmasūtra (5.5). — ‘He should do such acts as might be pleasing to the Teacher.’

Viṣṇu (28.1). — ‘For Religious Students, residence in the Teacher’s house.’

Viṣṇu (2,14). — ‘The offering of the two Twilight Prayers; and after offering it, he should salute the Teacher.’

Viṣṇu (34-35). — ‘Thus he should make his own either one Veda, or two Vedas, or three Vedas; then the Vedic Subsidiaries.’

Viṣṇu (34-42). — ‘After having made the Veda his own, he should obtain the Teacher’s permission and offer him an excellent thing and then bathe.’

Viṣṇu (19.1). — ‘Him should one know as the Teacher who initiates him, teaches him the observances and teaches tho Veda.’

Gobhila Gṛhyasūtra (2.20. 33-34). — ‘Then he directs the boy — thou art a Religious Student, — fetch fuel, sip water, do thy duty, sleep not during the day.’

Gobhila Gṛhyasūtra (3. 4. 1). — ‘The Religious Student should study the Veda.’

Gobhila Gṛhyasūtra (1. 1. 7). — ‘The Religious Student having studied the Veda, should make the final offering of fuel on the fire.’

Śaṅkha (3.1-2). — ‘Having initiated the pupil, the Teacher should first of all instruct him regarding cleanliness, course of conduct, fire-tending, the offering of Twilight-Prayers. That person is the Guru who having performed all the rites, imparts to him the Veda.’

VERSE 2.174

Section XXIX - Meaning of Term ‘Twice-born’

यद्यस्य विहितं चर्म यत् सूत्रं या च मेखला ।
यो दण्डो यत्च वसनं तत् तदस्य व्रतेष्वपि ॥१७४॥

yadyasya vihitaṃ carma yat sūtraṃ yā ca mekhalā |
yo daṇḍo yatca vasanaṃ tat tadasya vrateṣvapi ||174||

That skin, that sac red thread, that girdle, that staff and that garment, which has been prescribed for one, stand during the observances also. — (174)

Medhātithi’s commentary (manubhāṣya):

The authors of Gṛhyasūtras have laid down certain acts called ‘observances’; such for instance as, ‘for one year one desires to get up the Veda or a part of it,’ — in which connection there are observances and vows and restraints prescribed; when one of these observances has been completed, and another is taken up, then all the rules and regulations that have been prescribed in connection with the Upanayana have to be followed.

“In that case how are the skin, etc., previously taken up to be disposed of?”

They are to be thrown into the water.

“That has been declared to be the method of disposing of things previously taken up; but of what form would be the disposal of such of those things as might have been destroyed (or lost)?”

As regards cases of loss, in as much as each of the things has its use definitely prescribed in the descriptions, it naturally follows that when one is lost, it is replaced by another; and this taking up of the latter would constitute the ‘disposal’ of the former.

‘That skin’ which has been prescribed for a particular Religious Student, e.g., ‘the skin of the Kṛṣṇa deer for the Brāhmaṇa, that of the Ruru deer for the Kṣatriya and so forth.

Similarly with the staff and other things.

All this stands ‘during the observances, also.’ In view of the context, ‘observances’ here must he taken as standing for ‘instruction regarding observances.’ — (174)

Explanatory notes by Ganganath Jha:

This verse is quoted in Aparārka (p. 58), which explains ‘vrateṣu’ as standing for the Sāvitrya and the rest.’

VERSE 2.175 [Rules to be observed by the Religious Student]

Section XXX - Rules to be observed by the Religious Student

सेवेतैमांस्तु नियमान् ब्रह्मचारी गुरौ वसन् ।
सन्नियम्यैन्द्रियग्रामं तपोवृद्ध्यर्थमात्मनः ॥१७५॥

sevetaimāṃstu niyamān brahmacārī gurau vasan |
sanniyamyaindriyagrāmaṃ tapovṛddhyarthamātmanaḥ ||175||

With a view to enhancing his own piety, the Rreligious Student should, while living with his Teacher, observe all these rules, — having fully subjugated all his organs. — (175)

Medhātithi’s commentary (manubhāṣya):

The Author is going to set forth a set of restraints and observances, in a section by themselves; and the present verse is intended to emphasise the importance of these; the sense being that what has been said before must be done, but what is coming next is even more important and conducive to superior results.

The term ‘Religious Student’ has been added in order to preclude the suspicion that a fresh section having begun here, the duties that are going to bo described are not meant for the student.

“If the text is continuing to describe the duties of the Religious Student, why should this be regards as a different section?”

Even though what are going to be described are similar in character to those that have gone before, yet there is a certain superiority attaching to them; and it is purely on the ground of this slight distinction that their?tr?eatment has been regarded as forming a different section.

The remaining words of the Text are explained as added for the purpose of making up the verse.

‘Should observe,’ — Should follow.

‘These’ — Those going to be described. The pronoun ‘this’ always refers to what happens to be uppermost in the mind.

‘Living with his Teacher’ — for the purpose of acquiring learning. The participle ‘living’ indicates permanent proximity.

‘Having fully controlled his organs’ — in the manner described above. (Verses 88 — 100.)

‘With a view to enhancing piety’; — i.e., for the purpose of that embellishment of himself which is brought about by the proper observance of the Injunction of Vedic Study. — (175)

The Author proceeds to describe the rules spoken of in the preceding verse.

Explanatory notes by Ganganath Jha:

This verse is quoted in Vīramitrodaya (Saṃskāra, p. 493) as laying down the necessity of observing the rules and regulations prescribed for the Student; — in Aparārka (p. 62), which explains that the particle ‘ca’ is added with a view to include those observances and restrictions that Have been prescribed'for the Religious Student in other Smṛtis; — and in Smṛticandrikā (Saṃskāra, p. 122).

Comparative notes by various authors:

Laghvāśvalāyana Smṛti (1.5). — ‘The Religious Student, firm in his own duty, should remain devoted to the service of the Teacher.’

Laghvāśvālāyana Smṛti (12.15-16). — ‘Then he should make the student get up the Veda on such days as are fit for study; being initiated, from that day onwards for six months, he should serve the Teacher and study the Veda in the prescribed manner.’

Vaśiṣṭha (5.2-3). — ‘Having studied either one Veda, or two Vedas, or three Vedas, — his studentship unruffled, the Religious Student should serve the Teacher.’

Vaśiṣṭha (26.18-19). — ‘As horses, without a chariot, or a chariot without horses, so is Austerity without Knowledge, and Knowledge without Austerity. Just as food mixed with honey, or honey mixed with food, is wholesome, so also are Knowledge and Austerity united.’

Gautama (3.9.5). — ‘Conducting himself thus, with senses subdued, he reaches Brahmic regions.’

Āpastamba-Dharmasūtra (1.2,11,12,19,26). — ‘After initiation, residence in the Teacher’s house...... He should never have sexual intercourse.’

Āpastamba-Dharmasūtra (4. 23, 29). — ‘He should every day safeguard the interests of the Teacher by means of virtuous and prudent acts; the Religious Student, with mind concentrated, should perform all useful acts.’

Āpastamba-Dharmasūtra (5.1, 5, 9-11). — ‘The term Austerity stands for the Restrictions; he should perform such acts as may be pleasing to the Teacher; — attentive to Vedic study, bent upon Dharma, fixed in austerity, straightforward and merciful, thus does the Religious Student become accomplished.’

Viṣṇu (27.47). — ‘The Brāhmaṇa who carries on his studentship in this manner goes to the highest place and is not born again.’

Viṣṇu (1.24). — ‘Delighting in learning the Veda, living under the Teacher, bent upon the Teacher’s good.’

Vyāsasmṛti (1.24). — ‘Being initiated, he should reside in the Teacher’s house, ever calm and collected; on a sacred day, having pronounced the Praṇava and the Gāyatrī, he should begin the study of the Veda, also the Dharmaśāstra, for the purpose of understanding cleanliness and conduct; having duly read all this from the Teacher, he should act so as to please him; in this manner should he keep the observances of his studentship. He should ever attend upon him till he completes his Veda study.’

Nārada (5.8-15). — ‘Till he has mastered the sciences, the student shall attend diligently on his Teacher; the same conduct has to be observed by him towards the Teacher’s wife and son. He shall preserve chastity and beg alms, lying on a low couch and using no ornaments. He shall go to rest after, and rise before, all persons in the Teacher’s house. He shall never come or stay without his Teacher’s bidding; his Teacher’s call he must obey without hesitation, when he is able to do so. He shall read at the proper time, when his Teacher is not averse to it, sitting on a lower seat than his Teacher, by his side, or on a bench and paying attention to what he says. Science, like the current of a stream, is constantly advancing towards the plain; therefore one studying science should be humble towards his Teacher. His Teacher shall correct him, if he is not obedient, scolding him or chastising him with a rope or with a small shoot of cane. The Teacher shall not strike him a heavy blow; nor on the head or on the chest; and he must encourage him after having chastised him. Otherwise the king shall punish the Teacher. After having completed his studies, he shall give the customary present to his Teacher and return home. Thus should be the conduct of the Student.’

VERSE 2.176

Section XXX - Rules to be observed by the Religious Student

नित्यं स्नात्वा शुचिः कुर्याद् देवर्षिपितृतर्पणम् ।
देवताभ्यर्चनं चैव समिदाधानमेव च ॥१७६॥

nityaṃ snātvā śuciḥ kuryād devarṣipitṛtarpaṇam |
devatābhyarcanaṃ caiva samidādhānameva ca ||176||

Every day, having bathed and become clean, he should make offerings to deities, Sages and Fathers, and do the worshipping of the deities and the placing of fuel. — (176)

Medhātithi’s commentary (manubhāṣya):

Everyday, ‘having bathed and become pure,’ — i.e., having his uncleanliness removed by bath, — ‘he should make offerings to Deities, Sages and Fathers.’ If he is already clean, he need not bathe; as the adding of the term ‘clean’ clearly shows that the ‘bathing’ here laid down is only for the purpose of cleanliness, and hence its performance is absolutely compulsory, like the ‘bathing’ to be done by the Snālaka, Accomplished Student. It is for this reason that in another Smṛti bathing has been prohibited (for the Religious Student); though this prohibition refers to bathing with clay, for purposes of personal adornment. Gautama however has prescribed actual bathing. Hence what is meant is that one should plunge into water like a stick, and he should remove dirt, etc., by rubbing the body with his hauds. Unless there is touching of an unolean thing, such dirt as arises from perspiration, or from contact with the dust contained in the clothing, etc., does not make one ‘unclean’; for the presence of such dirt is inevitable. Says the Brāhmaṇa — ‘What is dirt? Is it the skin, or hairs of the beard or penance?’ — which shows that the presence of such ‘dirt’ is conducive to spiritual merit.

“How is it known that the bathing (here laid down) is for the purposes of cleanliness?”

The present injunction cannot be taken as prompting, to the performance of divine service, a person who fulfills the two distinct qualifications of ‘having bathed’ and ‘become clean’;

(1) because as a matter of fact, one who has bathed can never remain unclean;

(2) because even for a person who has adopted cleanliness by having sipped water, etc., bathing is found to be enjoined;

(3) because we meet with such passages as ‘having bathed, sipped water, one should sip water again,’ where even for the person who has bathed a method of further cleanliness is enjoined.

From all this it is clear that what the present verse enjoins is that whenever occasion (in the shape of the contact of unclean things, etc.) arises, one should bathe, even though there be already present the ‘cleanliness’ that is generally understood as such.

Or, the present verse may be regarded as a totally independent rule, intended to prohibit bathing without special occasion arising in the shape of uncleanliness; and it is iu view of this, prohibition that we have the counter-exception — ‘one should bathe after having learnt the Veda,’ — which enjoins bathing at the end of Vedic Study (even in the absence of any uncleanlincss).

“He should make offerings to Deities, Sages and Fathers.” — By reason of the mention of ‘tarpaṇa,’ the ‘offering’ here meant appears to be that offering of water to the Deities and others which has been prescribed among the duties of the house-holder, under 3.283. The authors of Gṛhyasūtras also have declared this act as to be done, with water only; e.g., says Āśvalāyana (3.1.3) — ‘He satisfies the Deities.’ Inordinary life also this act is known as the ‘offering of water.’

The Deities to whom this offering is to be made have been enumerated by the writers on Gṛhya — vis., Agni, Prajāpati, Brahmā and so forth. The ‘tarpaṇa,’ ‘offering,’ to these does not consist of producing in them the feeling of satisfaction (which is the etymological meaning of the term ‘tarpaṇa’); it consists only in the pouring, on their behalf, of water with joined hands. Hence what is here laid down comes to be only a sacrificial offering, in which water is the substance offered. Specially as the character of ‘deity’ could not otherwise have belonged to those to whom the offering is made; for that alone has been called ‘deity’ to whom a sacrifice is offered; it is not one who becomes satisfied. The only definition of ‘deity’ that we have is — ‘Deities are recipients of hymns and recipients of offerings’; they become ‘recipients of hymns’ by becoming the objects of eulogy, and they become ‘recipients of offerings’ by becoming those to whom offerings are made. When therefore our author speaks of them as ‘tarpya,’ ‘to be satisfied,’ he uses the term in its figurative sense of ‘being recipients of the offering of water.’ The teacher and such other persons are recognised as ‘recipients’ when the cow and such things are transferred to their ownership; and the Deities also are ‘recipients.’ Thus both having the common character of ‘being recipients,’ they are described as ‘being satisfied.’ If what is laid down here meant actual ‘satisfying’ of the Deities, then this: water-offering’ would become a purely sanctificatory act; and yet no ‘Sanctification’ is possible in the case of Deities; for the simple reason that they have not been, nor are they ever likely to lie, employed; and what has never been employed, or is not likely to be employed, cannot rightly be regarded as an object of sanctification.

‘Sages,’ — i.e., those sages that happen to be one’s ‘Gotra-ṛṣis’; e.g., for those belonging to the ‘Parāśara-gotra,’ Vaśiṣṭha, Śakti and Pārāśarya would be the ‘sages’ (to whom the offering is to be made). The author of Gṛhyasūtras have however spoken of the ‘seers of Vedic Mantras’ (and not the Gotra-ṛṣis) as the ‘sages’ to whom the offering is to be made; i.e., the sages Madhucchandas, Gṛtsamada and Viśvāmitra. Since the text speaks of ‘sages’ without any qualification, it is open to us to take it as standing for both kinds of sages; but in view of the fact that the Gṛhyasūtras have specified them (as being the ‘seers of mantras’), it is only right to take these latter as meant.

‘Fathers.’ — One’s dead ancestors, — father, grandfather, etc., all Sapiṇḍas and Samānodakas. In the case of the ‘Fathers,’ the ‘offering’ is to be the actual ‘Tarpaṇa’ itself. This is going to be distinctly laid down under the rules bearing upon Śrāddha.

Worshiping of the Deities. — In connection with this some ancient writers have made the following observations: — “Who are these deities, whose ‘worship’ is here laid down? If they are meant to be those pninted in picture-books — figures with four arms, with a thunderbolt in the hand and so forth, — then, since ordinary men regard these as ‘images’ (which connotes unreality), they can be called ‘Deity,’ only figuratively. If, on the other hand, they are meant to be those related to hymns and offerings, — which are indicated by Vedic injunctions, and also by the words of mantras, and which are called so by persons versed in the use of words and their denotations, — such as ‘Agni,’ ‘Agni-Soma,’ ‘Mitra-Varuṇa,’ ‘Indra,’ ‘Viṣṇu,’ and so forth — then, in that case, their character of ‘Deity,’ would be dependent upon the said acts (of offering, etc.), and not upon the fact of their having any connection with the denotation (of the term ‘Deity’); and further, a particular (Deity) would be the ‘Deity’ for only that offering which is enjoined as to be offered to him; e.g., when the ‘Cake baked upon eight pans,’ is called ‘āgneya’ (dedicated to Agni), Agni becomes the ‘deity’ only of that cake, and not of that which is called ‘saurya’ (dedicated to Sūrya).”

From the above considerations the conclusion that the ancient writers have deduced is as follows: — In cases where the term cannot be. taken in its direct denotation, it is only right to take it in the figurative sense; specially as such is the actual usage. Hence the ‘worship’ enjoined in the present verse is that of images.

What the truth on this point is we shall explain below, under verse 189.

‘Placing of fuel’ — throwing into the fire pieces of wood, every morning and evening. — (176)

Explanatory notes by Ganganath Jha:

‘Snātvā’ — “He should bathe for cleanliness, not for pleasure; according to Gautama 2.8,2 and 9.61; Baudhāyana 1.2.3.39 and Viṣṇu 28.5”. — Hopkins.

This verse is quoted in Aparārka (p. 62); — and in Smṛticandrikā (Saṃskāra, p. 117).

Comparative notes by various authors:

Viṣṇu (28. 4, 5). — ‘Both times, there should he bath and fire-tending; — dipping in water like a wooden log.’

Vaśiṣṭha (7.7). — ‘With speech controlled, eating at the fourth, sixth and eighth parts of the day, — he should go alms-begging.’

Yājñavalkya (1.22). — ‘Bathing with mantras dedicated to the deity Apas, water-sprinkling, breath-control, praying to the Sun, and repetition of the Gāyatrī., — daily.’

Gautama (2.12, 14). — ‘Fire-kindling, alms-begging; — bathing in water.’

Yama (Aparārka, p. 02). — ‘With sleep, indolence, anger and his own self under control, he shall avoid sleeping and sitting on the couch, and the cleansing of the teeth; he shall sleep alone on kuśa-gass, and shall never emit his semen anywhere.’

VERSE 2.177

Section XXX - Rules to be observed by the Religious Student

वर्जयेन् मधु मांसं च गन्धं माल्यं रसान् स्त्रियः ।
शुक्तानि यानि सर्वाणि प्राणिनां चैव हिंसनम् ॥१७७॥

varjayen madhu māṃsaṃ ca gandhaṃ mālyaṃ rasān striyaḥ |
śuktāni yāni sarvāṇi prāṇināṃ caiva hiṃsanam ||177||

He should abstain from honey, meat, scent, garland, flavours, women, all fermented acids and also the killing of living creatures. — (177)

Medhātithi’s commentary (manubhāṣya):

‘Madhu’ — stands for the honey produced by bees. As for wine (which also is called ‘madhu’), it is an intoxicant; and hence its use is prohibited even before the Upanayana: ‘The Brāhmaṇa should ever abstain from intoxicants’ — says Gautama (2.20).

‘Meat,’ — even such as has been offered (to deities And fathers).

The term ‘scent’ stands for camphor and such other things as are of extremely sweet scent, — the name of the quality (scent) being used figuratively for things possessed of it. All highly perfumed substances are prohibited, and what is prohibited is the applying of these perfumes to the body; as for the scent itself, when it proceeds from the fragrant substance, it cannot, be checked. Nor does the prohibition apply to the case where the perfume reaches the student by chance. What is reprehensible therefore is the intentional using of fragrant incense and such things as luxury. It is for this reason that there.is nothing reprehensible in the case where the pupil is told by his Teacher to cut a Sandal-tree and the sweet smell of the wood reaches him it its natural way. It Is by reason of its being mentioned along with ‘garland’ that we take it to mean strong scent. That which is not strong enough to exhilarate the mind, — e.g., the smell of such things as Kuṣṭha, Ghṛta, Pūtidāru, etc. — is not prohibited.

‘Garland’ — flowers strung together.

‘Flavours’ — Sweet, acid and the rest.

“Since things absolutely devoid of flavour could not be eaten, living itself would be impossible (if one were to avoid all flavours).”

True; but what are prohibited are highly tasty things, like sugar. This prohibition applies also to such substances as are mixed with other things, by way of condiments. Or, the prohibition may apply to too much indulgence in too richly cooked and tasty food. To the same end we have the following saying — ‘He alone acquires learning who shuns wealth like serpent, sweets like poison and women like demonesses.’

Others explain ‘rasa,’ ‘flavour,’ to stand for the poetic emotions, Erotic and the rest; the sense being that one should not arouse his emotions by witnessing dramatic performances or listening to poetical recitations.

Others again have held the view that the prohibition applies to the pieces of sugar-cane, Dhātri and such other substances, when extracted and separated from them, — and not as contained within them.

This however is not right; the term ‘rasa’ is not known as symonymous with ‘fluid.’

As a matter of fact, what is prohibited with regard to each of the things named is its enjoyment, in whatever form this may be possible. For instance, of honey and meat, what is prohibited is the eating, and not the seeing or touching; of scent and garland, what is prohibited is using them with the idea of adorning the body, and not merely holding them by the hand; similarly in the case of women, it is sexual intercourse that is prohibited; and it is by reason of there being a fear of such’intercourse following that the author is going to prohibit later on, the looking at, and touching of, women. As says Gautama (2.16) — ‘The looking at, and touching of women (are reprehensible), for fear of its leading to actual intercourse.’

‘Fermented acids’ — such things as turn acid; that is those that turn acid either by being kept overnight, or by being mixed with other substances. Such substances are prohibited by reason of the avoiding of these being among the duties of all twice-born persons; and yet it has been re-iterated here for the purpose of including all those things that are named ‘acid’ only figuratively; it is thus that ‘harsh words’ become prohibited. Says Gautama — ‘Acid words (should be avoided).’ It is for the purpose of including all this that the author has added the epithet ‘all.’ This epithet ‘all’ is meant to refer to ‘flavours’ and ‘acids.’ It is thus that the figurative use becomes established.

Some people offer the following explanation: — “The term ‘acid’ prohibits the acid flavours, and the term ‘all’ prohibits unpleasant words.”

These people should be asked the following question: — Why cannot the epithet ‘all’ be taken as prohibiting those things that are prohibited only by implication r In this way we could obtain the prohibition of curds and like things which have turned acid. If however the prohibition (by ‘all’) be explained as referring to things whose use is possible, — then there can be no objection to it.

‘Of living creatures,’ — such as insects and fleas; the killing of these is done through childishness; hence we have the present prohibition with a view to emphasise the necessity of making special efforts to avoid it. Or, the re-iteration of the prohibition may be meant to be indicative of the fact that the avoidance of killing is auxiliary to ‘Vedic Study.’ So that the killing would involve the transgression, not only of the prohibition calculated for the benefit of the agent, but also that of the due observance of the injunction of Vedic Study.

“Why is not the same assumption made regarding the fermented acids and other things also?”

The prohibition of the acids, etc., is such as has room for it in other cases also [ e.g. Harsh words are prohibited for other people and under other circumstances also; the prohibition of killing has no such room for application, since it is necessary during sacrificial performances]. And when between two things it is found that one becomes absolutely null and void, while there is still room for the other, then preference is given to the former. — (177)

Explanatory notes by Ganganath Jha:

‘Rasān’ — “Molasses and the like’ (Govindarāja, Kullūka and Nārāyaṇa); — ‘clarified butter, oil and the like’ (Nandana); — ‘sweet, acid and the rest; — i.e. very richly flavoured food’ (Medhātithi, who also notes one‘other’ explanation, juices of sugar-cane, tamarind and other fruits, which he rejects); — Nārāyaṇa mentions one explanation, ‘poetic sentiments’.

This is quoted in Parāśaramādhava (Ācāra, p. 456), along with the next two verses and a half, as enumerating the things to be avoided by the Student; — in Vīramitrodaya (Saṃskāra, p. 494), which adds the notes: ‘Rasān’ stands for the juices of sugar-cane and other things; — even though Honey also is a juice, yet it has been mentioned separately in view of the heavier expiatory rites prescribed for the transgressors of the rule prohibiting it.

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