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‘find’ — Ceasing, desisting from study.

Though the term ‘brahma’ is the subordinate factor in the compound (‘brahmārambhe’) yet, in as much as the term ‘end’ is a relative term, it is taken as correlated to the term ‘brahma’; specially because there is no other word in the text with which it could be connected.

‘Always’ — implies that this rule regarding the clasping of feet should he observed at the beginning and end of all future study, every day. If this word were not present, the rule would be taken as applying to only that ‘beginning of study’ which comes immediately after the Initiatory Ceremony; on the analogy of the Ārambhaṇīyā Iṣṭi, which is performed only at the beginning of the first sacrifice performed by the Agnihotrin, after he has done the ‘Fire-kindling,’ and not at that of each succeeding pūrnamāsa, which is performed every month.

From morning till such time as the daily routine of reciting two Chapters has not been finished, the whole is regarded as a single act of ‘study’; so that if at intervals, there is some obstruction, the resuming of study on the same day is not regarded as ‘beginning’; and at each resumption, the feet are not clasped. In another Smṛti we read — ‘The clasping of the Teacher’s feet should be done every day in the morning.’ Gautama, 2.53).

‘Having joined’ — making them touch one another.

‘Should be studied’; — what is meant is that the hands should he placed in that posture which resembles the tortoise.

‘This is Brahmāñjali’; — this explains the meaning of the term ‘brahmāñjali’ — (71)

Explanatory notes by Ganganath Jha:

The first half of this verse is quoted in Vīramitrodaya (.Saṃskāra, p. 532) where Sadā is explained as everyday at the time of study, and ‘pāda-grahaṇam’ as saluting- — and the second half is quoted on p. 524, as containing the definition of the ‘Brahmāñjali’; — and in Smṛticandrikā (Saṃskāra, p. 136).

Comparative notes by various authors:

Āpastamba-Dharmasūtra, 1.3.10. — ‘The teacher’s fee? should be clasped at both times, — at the time when one is going to read and also when he has read.’

Viṣṇu-Smrti, 30, 32. — ‘At the beginning and at the end of the reading of Veda, the clasping of the teacher’s feet should be done.’

Yājñavalkya. 1. 26. — ‘Then declaring himself — here I am — he should approach the teacher for purposes of study.’

Gautama-Dharmasūtra, 1. 52, 59. — ‘Clasping the left feet with his hand, he should address the teacher “Please sir teach me”; and he should clasp his feet at the beginning and at the end of the expounding of the Veda.’

Aṅgiras (Vīramitrodaya-Saṃskāra, pp. 523-524). — ‘At the approach of the Vedic lecture, and also at its close, the teacher’s feet should be clasped, as also when one returns from a journey.’ Āśvalāyana-Smṛti (Vīramitrodaya-Saṃskāra, 9. 524). — ‘The left hand with palm upwards, and the right with the palm downwards, the backs of the hands being firmly attached, the thumbs being firmly steady, — this attitude of the hands is called Brahmāñjali, because of its having been adopted first of all by Brahmā. This has to be adopted at the beginning of Vedic study, also at its completion, during the Brahmayajña, and also during the time that the Sāvitrī is being taught.’

Saṃvarta (Vīramitrodaya-Saṃskāra, 9. 524). — ‘Then he should road the Veda, looking at the teacher’s face, keeping the hands in control, placed over the knees.’

VERSE 2.72

Section XVII - Rules of Study

व्यत्यस्तपाणिना कार्यमुपसङ्ग्रहणं गुरोः ।
सव्येन सव्यः स्प्रष्टव्यो दक्षिणेन च दक्षिणः ॥७२॥

vyatyastapāṇinā kāryamupasaṅgrahaṇaṃ guroḥ |
savyena savyaḥ spraṣṭavyo dakṣiṇena ca dakṣiṇaḥ ||72||

The clasping op the teacher’s feet should be done with crossed hands: the left should be touched with the left and the right with the right. — (72)

Medhātithi’s commentary (manubhāṣya):

The ‘clasping of the Teacher’s feet’ mentioned in the preceding verse ‘should be done with crossed hands.’

In answer to the question as to what sort of the ‘crossing’ of hands should be done, the Author adds — ‘the left’ foot ‘should be touched with the left’ hand; it is mere touching that should be done, the Teacher should not be troubled by the foot being held for a long time. This ‘crossing’ is obtained by the two hands being simultaneously moved towards one another. That is, the feet having to be clasped by the pupil standing in front of the Teacher; the left hand is moved towards the right and the right towards the left; it is thus that the left foot becomes touched by the left hand and the right foot by the right hand. This is the ‘crossing of the hands.’

Others read the text as ‘vinyastapāṇinā,’ ‘with well-placed hands.’ The ‘placing’ being implied by the touching, what the addition of the epithet would imply is that the feet should not be touched merely with the finger tips, — in the way in which a red-hot piece of iron is touched, for fear of burning, — but the hands should be ‘well-plaed,’ actually held upon the feet. Pressing of the feet would cause pain to the Teacher, and is as such prohibited. Such is the explanation provided of this version of the text. — (72)

Explanatory notes by Ganganath Jha:

This verse is quoted in Vīramitrodaya (Saṃskāra, p. 455), where it is explained that the ‘left’ and ‘right’ of the second half stand for the left and right feet; so that the meaning is that the left foot of the teacher should be touched by the left hand and the right one by the right hand; and it quotes Baudhāyann laying down that the pupil should pass his hands from the knee downwards to the foot.

A similar explanation is given also in Parāśaramādhava (Ācāra, p. 300).

The verse is quoted also in Vidhānapārijāta (p. 52.1); — in Aparārka (p. 55), as laying down the ‘feet clasping’ of the teacher; — in Saṃskāramayūkha (p. 40), which says that ‘spraṣṭavyaḥ’ goes with ‘gurucaraṇaḥ’ understood; — and in Smṛticandrikā (Saṃskāra, p. 103), which explains the meaning to be that the left and right feet of the teacher are to be touched with the left and right hands respectively.

Comparative notes by various authors:

Gautama-Dharmasūtra, 1. 58. — ‘The clasping of the teacher’s feet.’

Gautama-Dharmasūtra, 6. 1. — ‘Every day on meeting, the feet of the teacher should be clasped.’

Gautama-Dharmasūtra (Aparārka, p. 55). — ‘Also daily in the morning, as well as at the beginning and end of Vedic lectures.’

Āpastamba-Dharmasūtra, 1.2.5.21-22. — ‘With the right hand clasping the right foot, he should touch it both up and down, along with the ankle; — according to others, the two feet should he clasped with the two hands.’

Āpastamba (Aparārka, p. 55). — ‘At sunrise, he shall meet the teacher and clasp his feet.’

Baudhāyana-Dharmasūtra, 1. 2. 26. — ‘Clasping the right foot with the right, and the left with the left hand, one obtains long life and goes to heaven.’

Paithīnasi (Vīramitrodaya-Saṃskāra, p. 455). — ‘With the palms of the two hands turned upwards, he should clasp the two feet of the teacher, the right with the right and the left with the left.’

Vaśiṣṭha (Vīramitrodaya-Saṃskāra, p. V56). — ‘The clasping of the teacher’s feet should be done.’

Baudhāyana (Parāśaramādhava, p. 300). — ‘Touching his ears, concentrating his mind, he shall touch the teacher below his knees down to his feet, this is feet-clasping.’

Atri (Aparārka, p. 55). — ‘Ordinarily one should salute by raising the right band; hands should be joined in saluting a Vedic scholar; in the case of the teacher, the feet should he clasped.’

VERSE 2.73

Section XVII - Rules of Study

अध्येष्यमाणं तु गुरुर्नित्यकालमतन्द्रितः ।
अधीष्व भो इति ब्रूयाद् विरामोऽस्त्विति चारमेत् ॥७३॥

adhyeṣyamāṇaṃ tu gururnityakālamatandritaḥ |
adhīṣva bho iti brūyād virāmo'stviti cāramet ||73||

When the pupil is going to study, the Teacher, ever free from indolence, should say — ‘ho, read!’ and he should cease when he says ‘let there be a stop!’ — (73).

Medhātithi’s commentary (manubhāṣya):

‘When going to study’ and the other expressions have already been explained before. The present verse adds a direction for the Teacher. When a boy is desirous to read the Veda from a Teacher, he should be invited with the words ‘ho, read!’ Until he is so invited, the Boy should not press the Teacher with such importunate requests as — ‘please teach us this chapter!’ Another Smṛti has declared — ‘One should study on being invited to do so’. (Yājñavalkya, Ācāra, 27).

Saying the words ‘let there be a stop,’ ‘he should cease’ — desist, — ‘who is to cease?’ — The Teacher; as is clear from the nominative case-ending used. Or, it may be taken to mean that the pupil should cease only when dismissed by the Teacher, and not according to his own wish; the construction of the passage in this case being — ‘when the Teacher says let there be a stop, then the pupil should cease.’

Other people have explained this rule regarding the time of ceasing as applying to all readers — the pupil as well as the Teacher. And this is in accordance with another Smṛti, which says — “Having recited the Veda, at the time of ceasing, one should touch the ground with the fore-finger and pronounce ‘svasti’ in the case of the Yajurveda, ‘vispaṣṭām’ in the case of the Sāman, ‘virāmaḥ’ in the case of the Ṛgveda and ‘āramasva’ in the case of the Atharva.”

‘Free from indolence’ — without sloth; ‘indolence’ is sloth; — the man beset with sloth is called ‘indolent’; and when he has given it up he is called ‘from indolence.’ This is meant to be merely descriptive. ‘Indolence’ here does not mean fatigue. The present text should never be taken to mean that what is here laid down is for only one who is free from indolence, while for those beset with indolence there is some other rule. — (73)

Explanatory notes by Ganganath Jha:

Nārāyaṇa and Nandana read ‘adhyeṣyamāṇastu gurum etc,’ which means — ‘the pupil, proceeding to study, shall say to his Teacher etc., etc.’

This verse is quoted in Parāśaramādhava (Ācāra, p. 136), where the verse is explained to mean that — ‘each day at the beginning of the teaching, the Teacher should begin the work with the word ‘Ho! read;’ and at the end, should finish with the words ‘Let there he a stop;’ and it adds that all this is to be done for the purpose of ‘pleasing God.’

The verse is quoted also in Madanapārijāta (p. 100); — in Vidhānapārijāta (p. 521); — in Vīramitrodaya (Saṃskāra, p. 514); — in Saṃskāramayūkha (p. 52); — and in Smṛticandrikā (Saṃskāra, p. 142), which explains ārame as ‘should desist from teaching.’

Comparative notes by various authors:

Gautama- Dharmasūtra, 1. 52. — ‘Clasping the left, foot with his hand, he should address the request to him — pray read.’

Āpastamba-Dharmasūtra, 1.3.10,13,15. — ‘When one desirous of learning meets a learned man, he should obtain his permission and then proceed to read; and having approached near the teacher, he should read after having requested the teacher to please read.’

Yama (Vīramitrodaya-Saṃskāra, p. 514). — ‘Regularly rising in the morning, he should cleanse his teeth, bathe, pour libations into fire; then the man should carry on teaching.’

Āpastamba (Vīramitrodaya-Saṃskāra). — ‘One should avoid teaching on the bed; he should never teach on the bed whereupon he sleeps.’

VERSE 2.74

Section XVII - Rules of Study

ब्रह्मणः प्रणवं कुर्यादादावन्ते च सर्वदा ।
स्रवत्यनोङ्कृतं ?? पूर्वं परस्ताच्च विशीर्यति ॥७४॥

brahmaṇaḥ praṇavaṃ kuryādādāvante ca sarvadā |
sravatyanoṅkṛtaṃ ?? pūrvaṃ parastācca viśīryati ||74||

One should always pronounce the Praṇava in the beginning and at the end of the Veda. if it is not accompanied by the syllable ‘oṃ’ in the beginning, it trickles away; and (if it is not accompanied by it) at the end, it becomes shattered. — (74)

Medhātithi’s commentary (manubhāṣya):

Here also, in accordance with what has gone before (under 71), ‘one should pronounce the Praṇava in the beginning and at the end of the Veda’; — which means that the syllable is to be pronounced in the beginning and at the end of the action of reading the Veda.

The term ‘praṇava’ stands for the syllabic ‘oṃ’; as is clear from what the text adds later on — ‘not accompanied by the syllable oṃ.’

‘Always’ — has been added in order to show that the rule applies to every act of study. Without this term it would appear, from the context, that it applies to only that first study by the Religious Student which is done for the getting up of the text. When the adverb ‘always’ has been added, it becomes clear that the rule applies to all forms of studying, — that which is done for the purpose of keeping the memory of the text fresh, or that which is done by the Householder and other people in obedience to the injunction that ‘the Veda should be studied every day.’ As regards the reciting of Vedic mantras during the Twilight Prayer, etc., the use of the syllable ‘oṃ’ the author is going to enjoin directly (in Verse 78). What is laid down here is not meant to be a necessary accompaniment of the Veda, — which would mean that the rule is to be followed whenever one pronounces any Vedic passage; thus it is that the Praṇava is not used with Vedic mantras on the following occasions: at oblations poured into fire, or during the japa of mantras, or in course of the teaching of scriptures, or at the recitation of the ‘Yājyā’ and other hymns, or when Vedic passages are quoted only by way of illustration. From all this it follows that the adverb ‘always’ is meant to show only that the rule laid down applies to that study of the Veda which forms the subject-matter of the context. As for the necessity of using the Praṇava at the beginning of one’s daily study, this is secured by the construing of the term ‘always’ of the preceding verse with the present one.

In praise of what has been enjoined the text adds — ‘If it is not accompanied by the syllable oṁ, etc.’ If, in the beginning, the Veda is not accompanied by the syllable ‘oṃ,’ it trickles off. The compound ‘anoṅkṛtam’ is to be expounded as ‘that which is not accompanied, — i.e., sanctified — by the syllable oṃ’ according to Pāṇini, 2. 1. 32; or, it may be expounded as ‘that Veda in which the syllable oṁ is not uttered,’ — the order of the terms in this case being in accordance with the rule laid down in connection with the ‘Sukhādi’ group, according to Pāṇini, 6. 2. 170.

‘At the end’ — at the close. The particle ‘and’ indicates that the term ‘not accompanied by the syllable om’ is to be construed here also.

‘Trickles off- — becomes shattered.’ — Both these terms are meant to indicate the futility of the study. The sense being that that religious act, in which the Veda studied in the said defective fashion is used, absolutely fails to accomplish its purpose. This is an Arthavāda meant to be deprecatory of the said method of study. When milk is placed in a pot, the milks passes off all round; and this is what is called ‘trickling off’; and if the milk becomes destroyed after it has been boiled and become solidified, this is what is called ‘becoming shattered.’ — (74)

Explanatory notes by Ganganath Jha:

‘Viśīryati ’ — avasthitim na labhate, ‘does not obtain any standing’ (Kullūka); — ‘becomes absolutely useless’ (Medhātithi); — ‘is not understood’ (Govindarāja and Nārāyaṇa),

This verse is quoted in Madanapārijāta (p. 99); — in Vidhānapārijāta (p. 521); — and in Smṛticandrikā (Saṃskāra, p. 136) in support of the view that the Praṇava should he pronounced at the close of the reading also.

Comparative notes by various authors:

Apastamba-Dharmasūtra, 4. 13. 16. — ‘The syllable Om is the gate of Heaven; therefore when going to read the Veda, one should begin with it.’

Viṣṇu-Smṛti, 30,33. — ‘The Praṇava should be pronounced.’

VERSE 2.75

Section XVII - Rules of Study

प्राक्कूलान् पर्युपासीनः पवित्रैश्चैव पावितः ।
प्राणायामैस्त्रिभिः पूतस्तत ओं।कारमर्हति ॥७५॥

prākkūlān paryupāsīnaḥ pavitraiścaiva pāvitaḥ |
prāṇāyāmaistribhiḥ pūtastata oṃ|kāramarhati ||75||

Seated upon Kuśa-blades pointing eastwards and sanctified by Kuśa-blades, when one has purified himself by means of three ‘breath-suspensions,’ — then alone he becomes entitled to the syllable ‘oṃ.’ — (76)

Medhātithi’s commentary (manubhāṣya):

The term ‘kūṭa’ means ‘kuśa-blade’; — ‘Seated upon’ them, — i.e., seated upon kuśa-blades pointing eastwards. The accusative ending in ‘kūṭān’ being in accordance with Pāniṇi 1. 4. 46, ‘adhisthīnsthāsām karma,’ where the latter part consists of the factors ‘athā’ — ‘ā’ — ‘āsām.’ In the word ‘paryupāsīnaḥ’ also we have an ‘ā’, the word containing the factors ‘pari’ — ‘upa’ — ‘ā’ — ‘āsīnaḥ’; the prefixes ‘pari’ and ‘upa’ having no significance at all.

‘Sanctified by kuśa-blades’; — i.e., having been made pure. The term ‘pavitra’ cannot stand for the Aghamarṣaṇa and other mantras; for the simple reason that at the time that the text is being dealt with, the student has not read those mantras. Nor are kuśa-blades capable, by their mere presence, to bring about purification for one who does no (purificatory) act; thus then, the necessity of some intervening act being essential, we are led to conclude, on the basis of another Smṛti, that this act is in the form of touching the sense-organs; Gautama (1.48-50) having prescribed ‘the touching of the organs with Kuśa-blades and seating upon Kuśa-blades pointing eastwards.’

‘Purified by means of three Breath-suspensions’ — The air passing through the mouth and the nostrils is called ‘prāṇa,’ ‘breath’; and the ‘āyāma’ of this is its suspension, holding within the body, preventing its going out. Another Smṛti (Yājñavalkya, Ācāra, 23) has laid down the measure of the time during which the breath is to be suspended — as also the mantra accompanying it, — “One, witholding his breath, should mutter three times the Gāyatrī along with the Praṇava and the Śiras, — this is what is called ‘Breath-suspension’.” The revered Vaśiṣṭha has added to these the Great Vyāhṛtis also. It is the end of the mantra that should mark the end of the suspension, no other limit for it being prescribed. In as much as all Smṛtis are meant to serve the same purpose, we must accept this same method of ‘Breath-suspension’ to be meant by the present text also, specially as there is no inconsistency with it.

Objection. — “What has been said here involves a mutual interdependence: until the Breath-suspensions have been performed one should not pronounce ‘Oṃ,’ while without this syllable ‘Oṃ’ there can be no ‘Breath-suspension’.”

There is nothing wrong in this. When Yājñavalkya lays down that ‘one should mutter three times; etc.,’ all that is meant is the mental act of remembering, thinking of, the syllable ‘Oṃ’; for when the breath is suspended, there can be no utterance of any syllable; though it is true that ‘Japa,’ ‘Reciting,’ is (in most cases) something that can be accomplished only by an operation of speech. In connection with the reading of the Veda however, what is intended is actual utterance of the syllable; and this for the simple reason that the act of reading consists of actual utterance — the root (in ‘adhyayana’) signify ing the waking of sound, and sound is that which is heard by the Ear, and not that which is cognised only by the mind.

What is prescribed here is not something applicable to the syllable ‘Oṃ’ itself, — whereby it could be made applicable to the uttering of the syllable on other occasions also. It has been said that the syllable should be pronounced at the beginning of Vedic study; but if the. rule here laid down were meant to be applicable to all utterances of the syllable, it would have to be observed in connection with such utterances of it in ordinary parlance as when one says ‘we say yes (oṃ).’

Then again, Gautama (l.49) has declared that. ‘the three Breath-suspensions extend over fifteen moments.’ The term ‘mātrā,’ ‘moment,’ stands for that point of time which is taken up in the pronouncing of a simple unmodified vowel; and in as much as this cannot be consistent with the time-limit prescribed by Yājñavalkya, this latter cannot be accepted as applicable to what is prescribed by Gautama; in which connection again no mantras are laid down. From this it is clear that there can be ‘Breath-suspensions’ even without the uttering of the syllable ‘oṃ.’ And thus there need be no mutual interdependence.

Then alone does the man ‘become entitled to the syllable oṃ’; — i.e., to the ‘pronouncing’ of the syllable, — the word ‘pronouncing’ having to be supplied if the entire term ‘oṅkāra’ is taken as standing for the Praṇava. If however we take the term ‘kār’ separately in the sense of making, — so that ‘oṁkāra’ means the making or uttering of the syllable ‘oṃ,’ — then we do not need to supply any other word. The uttering of the syllable having been laid down (under 74), where it is called ‘praṇava’; — the term ‘oṅkāra’ in the present sense simply serves the purpose of explaining what that ‘praṇava’ is.

So that ‘praṇava’ and ‘oṅkāra’ are synonymous terms; as we have already pointed out (in the Bhāṣya on 74). — (75)

Explanatory notes by Ganganath Jha:

‘Pavitraiḥ’ — ‘Kuśa-blades — by which the seat of the vital airs is touched’ — (Medhātithi); — ‘The Aghamarṣaṇa’ and other Vedic texts (noted by Medhātithi, but rejected by him, though adopted by Nandana). Burnell has translated the term as ‘grass-rings on the third finger’; — this is in exact conformity with the present usage, where a blade of Kuśa, twisted into the form of a ring, is worn on the third finger on the occasion of all religious ceremonies.

This verse is quoted in Vidhānapārijāta (p. 521); — in Vīramitrodaya (Saṃskāra, p. 522), which explains ‘prākkūlān’ as prāgagrān ‘pointing eastwards’, — and ‘pavitraiḥ’ simply as ‘pāranaiḥ’ ‘purificatories’; — in Saṃskāramayūkha (p. 49), which explains ‘prākkūlān’ as ‘with tips pointing towards the east’; — in Saṃskāraratnamālā (p. 316) which has the same explanations and adds that it refers to Kuśa-blades; — in Smṛticandrikā (Saṃskāra, p. 135) which has the same explanation and explains ‘pavitraiḥ’ as purificatory; — also in Nṛsiṃhaprasāda (Saṃskāra, p. 471).

Comparative notes by various authors:

Gautama-Dharmasūtra, 1.51-56. — ‘The sense-organs should be touched with Kuśa-blades; — there should be three Breath-suspensions, of fifteen units; and the seat should be on Kuśa-grass pointing eastwards.’

Baudhāyana-Dharmasūtra, 2.4.5,7. — ‘At the commencement of the performance of all acts, as also before the Twilight Prayers, one should sprinkle himself with the sanctifying blades and thereby prepare himself; — to this effect it is declared that seated on Kuśa-blades, holding Kuśa-blades in the hand, sprinkling himself with water, one should repeat the Gāyatrī a thousand times; — being purified with three Breath-suspensions.’

Kūrmapurāṇa (Vīramitrodaya-Āhnika, p. 254). — ‘Seated on Kuśa-blades pointing eastwards, with mind collected, he should perform throe Breath-suspensions and then the Twilight Prayers.’

VERSE 2.76

Section XVII - Rules of Study

अकारं चाप्युकारं च मकारं च प्रजापतिः ।
वेदत्रयान्निरदुहद् भूर्भुवः स्वरितीति च ॥७६॥

akāraṃ cāpyukāraṃ ca makāraṃ ca prajāpatiḥ |
vedatrayānniraduhad bhūrbhuvaḥ svaritīti ca ||76||

Out of the three Vedas, Prajāpati milked the letter ‘a,’ the letter ‘u’ and the letter ‘m’; as also the syllables ‘bhūḥ-bhuvaḥ-svaḥ.’ — (76)

Medhātithi’s commentary (manubhāṣya):

This verse is a valedictory supplement to the foregoing injunction.

The syllable ‘oṁ’ is an aggregate of the three letters ‘a,’ ‘u’ and ‘m’; and the present verse describes the origin of each of these.

‘Out of the three Vedas’ — from the three Vedas.

‘Milked’ — churned out; just as butter is churned out of the curd.

Not only the three letters, but also something else, in the shape of the syllables ‘bhūḥ-bhuvaḥ-svaḥ.’ — (76)

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