Stylistic devices which give additional characteristics to the objects described

Meaning from stylistic point of view.

In stylistics a word is treated as a phenomenon which has a potentiality of acquiring new meanings. 3 types of lexical meanings play a very important part in different stylistic devices: logical, emotive, nominal. Logical (1) meaning is a naming of an object or phenomenon by which we recognize the whole of the concept. Primary logical meaning is the one most frequently used, it begins the dictionary article of a word. Secondary logical meaning is the one derived from primary. ▲ He is the man of moderate opinions. “moderate” is realized in its secondary logical meaning derived from primary one. A word used in speech acquires an accidental meaning which should be included into semantic structure of the word it denotes – contextual (2) meaning. Difference between (1) and (2) the first one is materialized in the context, the second is born in the context. Emotive: has reference to the emotions of the speaker towards things defined. 2 types of emotive > permanent, occasional. Nominal meaning denotes proper and geographical

Belles-lettres style (the style of fiction) embraces:1)poetry; 2)drama; 3)emotive prose. B-l style or the style of imaginative literature may be called the richest register of communication: besides its own lan-ge means which are not used in any other sphere of communication, b-l st. makes ample use of other styles too, for in numerous works of literary art we find elements of scientific, official and other functional types of speech. Besides informative and persuasive functions, also found in other functional styles, the b-l style has a unique task to impress the reader aesthetically. The form becomes meaningful and carries additional info. Boundless possibilities of expressing one's thoughts and feelings make the b-l style a highly attractive field of research for a linguist.

The belles-lettres style, in each of its concrete representations, fulfils the aesthetic function, which fact singles this style out of others and gives grounds to recognize its systematic uniqueness, i.e. charges it with the status if an autonomous functional style.

Newspaper style includes informative materials: news in brief, headlines, ads, additional articles. But not everything published in the paper can be included in N.S. we mean publicist essays, feature articles, scient. Reviews are not N.S. to attract the readers attention special means are used by british & am. Papers ex: specific headlines, space ordering. We find here a large proportion of dates, personal names of countries, institutions, individuals. To achieve an effect of objectivity in rendering some fact or event most of info is published anonymously, without the name of newsman who supplied it, with little or no subjective modality. But the position of the paper becomes clear from the choice not only of subj. matter but also of words denoting international or domestic issues. Substyles. To understand the language peculiarities of English newspaper style it will be sufficient to analyze the following basic newspaper features:1) brief news items;2) advertisements and announcements;3) headlines; Brief items: its function is to inform the reader. It states only facts without giving comments. The vocabulary used is neutral and common literary. Specific features are: a) special political and economic terms; b) non-term political vocabulary; c) newspaper clichés; d) abbreviations; e) neologisms.

Scientific Prose Style

The style of scientific prose has 3 subdivisions:1) the style of humanitarian sciences; 2) the style of "exact" sciences; 3) the style of popular scientific prose. Its function is to work out and ground theoretically objective knowledge about reality. The aim of communication is to create new concepts, disclose the international laws of existence. The peculiarities are: objectiveness; logical coherence, impersonality, unemotional character, exactness. The scientific prose style consists mostly of ordinary words which tend to be used in their primary logical meaning. Emotiveness depends on the subject of investigation but mostly scientific prose style is unemotional. Grammar: The logical presentation and cohesion of thought manifests itself in a developed feature of scientific syntax is the use of established patterns. - postulatory; - formulative; - argumentative; The impersonal and objective character of scientific prose style is revealed in the frequent use of passive constructions, impersonal sentences. Personal sentences are more frequently used in exact sciences. In humanities we may come across constructions but few. Some features of the style in the text are: - use of quotations and references; - use of foot-notes helps to preserve the logical coherence of ideas. Scientific popular style has the following peculiarities: emotive words, elements of colloquial style.

Simile

 The simile is a stylistic device expressing a likeness between different objects.

 The formal element of the simile is the following conjunctions and adverbs: like, as, as like, etc.

 The simile is based on the comparison of objects belonging to different spheres and involves an element of imagination.

 Simile interprets the object by comparing it with some other objects of an entirely different nature, and produces the desired effect on the reader.

 The simile usually serves as a means to clearer meaning. By comparing the object or phenomenon the writer describes with a concrete and familiar thing, he makes his description clearer and more picturesque.

 Besides making a narrative more concrete and definite, the simile helps the author to reveal certain feelings of his own as well.

 Besides the original similes created by writers there are a great number of so-called traditional similes in the language which must be regarded as phraseological units.

 In the author‘s narrative traditional similes are most often used to stress the highest degree of quality.

e.g. “Funny how ideas come,” he said afterwards, “like a flash of lightning.”

Periphrasis is a word-combination which is used instead of the word designating an object.

 Every periphrasis indicates the feature of a notion which impressed the writer and conveys a purely individual perception of a given phenomenon.

 As a result of frequent repetition periphrasis may become well established in the language as a synonymous expression for the word generally used to signify the object. Such word-combinations are called periphrastic synonyms.

 In contrast to periphrastic synonyms genuine periphrasis is created in the process of writing and is an element of the individual style of a writer.

 Periphrasis may be logical and figurative. Logical periphrases are based on logical notions. Figurative periphrasis may be based on metaphor and on metonymy.

 Euphemistic periphrasis is a variety of periphrasis which substitutes a mild, delicate expression for one which seems to be rude or unpleasant. Euphemistic periphrasis has some features in common with euphemisms.

 Periphrasis is used for various stylistic purposes, usually to achieve a humorous or satirical effect.

e.g. He bore under his arm the instruments of destruction.

5. Words of non-literary stylistic layer(Sub-standard English). This layer also includes several subgroups:

a) Colloquialisms. Words that occupy an intermediate position between literary and non-literary stylistic layers and are used in conversational type of everyday speech, (awfully sorry, a pretty little thing, etc.)

b) Slangisms. Words that have originated in everyday speech and exist on the periphery of the lexical system of the given language: go crackers (go mad); guru (god); belt up (keep silence); big-head (a boaster);

c) Professionalisms. Words characteristic of the conversational variant of professional speech. Contrary to terms, professionalisms are the result of metonymic or metaphoric transference of some everyday words: bull (one who buys shares at the stock-exchange); bear (one who sells shares); sparks (a radio-operator); tin-hat (helmet), etc.

d) Vulgarisms. Rude words or expressions used mostly in the speech of the uncultured and the uneducated, e. g. missus (wife), son of a bitch (a bad person), etc.

The border-line between colloquialisms, slangisms and vulgarismsis often hard to draw for there are hardly any | linguistic criteria of discrimination. This explains why ,; one finds so many discrepancies in how these stylistic subgroups are labelled in various dictionaries.

Two more subgroups of the non-literary stylistic layer should be mentioned.

e) Jargonizes (cantisms). Words used within certain social and professional groups.

f). Regional dialectisms. Words and expressions used by peasants and others in certain regions of the country: baccy (tobacco), unbeknown (unknown), winder (window), etc.

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