Practice 7.               Philosophy of the Middle Ages. Scholasticism.

Practice 7.               Philosophy of the Middle Ages. Scholasticism.

Plan

1. Disputes of realists and nominalists.

2. Philosophy of Thomas Aquinas

1. Disputes of realists and nominalists.

During the scholastic period of philosophy the central problem was disputes between nominalists and realists. The subject of the disputes was the nature of common notions, which are called “abstract” today, while in the Middle Ages they were named “universals”.  The critical opposition between realists and nominalists lasted for a millennium. The first philosopher who raised the problem was Porphyries (234 - 304 a.d.). He asked three principle questions.

1. Do universals exist by themselves or do they exist only in human mind in the form of notions?

2. If universals really exist are they material or nonmaterial?

3. Do universals exist apart from real objects or do they live in them and depend on them?

While the problem developed philosophers divided to realists, nominalists and conceptualists. Realists were those who believed that universals really exist in nature. They based their theory on Plato’s research about ideas, which are realized in real things. Anselm Canterbury was an outstanding representative of realism. Nominalists believed that only concrete things could really exist while universals are their names. Nominalists based their theory on Aristotle’s studies, which rejected Plato’s ideas and considered material things exist in the objective reality. John Roscelin was an outstanding thinker of nominalism. Peter Abelard (1079-1142), Roscelin’s follower, made an attempt to bring together realism and nominalism. He developed a different study, which was named “conceptualism”. Conceptualists believe that universals really exist only in human mind (mind correlates with concept). Nevertheless, conceptualism failed to bring together nominalists and realists and was negated by Christian community.  

The essence of the dispute between realists and nominalists can be described by the following questions:

1) Do universals precede things? Does a general notion precede a particular thing? (universale ante rem) For instance, does “horseness” precede individual horses?

2) Do universals exist in things? Does a general notion exist in a particular thing? (universale in re) For instance, is “horseness” inherent to individual horses?

3) Do things precede universals? Does a particular thing precede a general notion (universale post re)? For instance, is the notion “horseness” derived from horses through abstractions?

Plato and realists held “horseness” as an idea precedes horses. Aristotle claimed “horseness” exists only in horses as the main principle of their form. Conceptualists believed that “horseness” is a notion created in human mind by generalizing common features of all horses.

The problem of universals becomes even more topical when the subject turns to such themes as humanity, a source of existence and trinity of God.

· Concerning humanity thinkers ask: “Was man created? Or is man the result of evolution?” “Which is more important: humanity (as it is believed by realists) or an individual man (as it is thought by nominalists)?” Realists hold that no individual man can exist apart from humanity. Nominalists claim that humanity cannot exist without an individual man.

· Concerning the problem of source of everything that exists thinkers ask: “Was there any plan before universe came into existence? Or is the world ruled by the force of instincts pushing it ahead through cut and try?”

· Concerning the problem of the trinity of God philosophers ask: “Was God ternary before the birth of Jesus Christ or did the trinity (God the Father, God the Son, God the Holy Spirit) appear after His birth?” Or: “Does the trinity mean three different names of the same God or are they three different Gods?”

Nominalists and conceptualists ideas were proclaimed heretical by Church. The problem of medieval nominalism and realism was finally solved only by Thomas Aquinas. He suggested the following decisions: God is final reality and ultimate completeness of objective reality. This means that God contains everything that ever existed, exists today and will exist in the future. However, God stays out of time and space. That is why both universals and things all exist in God. So, all contradictions were solved and the problem of trinity of God was forgotten for a while.  

2. Philosophy of Thomas Aquinas.

Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) was an outstanding scholastic philosopher and a theologist of Catholicism. He belonged to one of the most famous families in Europe. Aquinas was even related to Holy Roman emperors. In his early childhood Thomas found he had a disposition to lead a monastic life. When he was a young boy he joined Dominicans. Later he studied at Universities and lectured himself. He was called Encyclopedic or Angelic Doctor. 

Thomas realized that Plato’s study, which Augustine based his theology on, led to the contradiction of the spirit and nature (substance): spirit negates nature as “an evil principle” and struggles with it. Thomas bases his criticism of the great Plato on the authority of Aristotle. Taking into account Aristotle’s principles Thomas holds that man is a unity of the body and soul, nature is not an evil but a good beginning (it is created by God). Man should live in a real world in the unity with the nature and strive to reach the joys of paradise not only in the Heavens but also on the Earth. Man’s will is free and it is defined by God. Man’s will is practical reason that is not aimed at perceiving. It is aimed at managing human actions. Man’s reason subordinates to man’s will. Thomas Aquinas added to the list of ancient virtues (wisdom, courage, moderation and justice) three Christian ones, which involve faith, hope, and love. They lead to eternal bliss.      

Ontology. The objective reality has a hierarchical order. Every single being holds its place in accordance with the supreme goal. The lowest stratum is the widest and is called the inorganic nature. Then come plants, animals and human beings. The third stratum is taken by the invisible world. God is the top of the world. God cannot be understood by human reason. However, man can use reason to prove the existence of God. Thomas Aquinas suggests five evidences of God’s existence: 1) universal power; 2) universal cause; 3) absolute necessity; 4) supreme perfection; 5) final aim.

Epistemology. Aquinas considers that faith and knowledge (revelation and reason) do not mean the same as Saint Augustine thought. Both faith and reason can give man genuine knowledge but if reason contradicts with faith it gives false knowledge. Everything can be divided in two parts. To the first part belong things, which can be perceived by reason. This is studied by Philosophy. The second part is Theology. It studies phenomena that cannot be perceived by human reason. So, Thomas divided Philosophy and Theology claiming them to be two separate sciences.

In 1325 Thomas Aquinas was claimed Saint. In 1878 his study Thomism became an official study of the Catholic Church. Today neo-Thomism is wide spread in the West. The study is based on the ideas of Thomas Aquinas.

Questions for self-control:

1. What was the central problem of the philosophy of the scholastic period?

 2. By whom and when was the problem of universals first posed?

 3. What three questions were formulated by Porphyry?

 4. What are the three directions that philosophers divided on the essence of universals?

 5. Who are the realists? Name one representative.

 6. Who are the nominalists? Name one representative.

 7. Who are the conceptualists? Name one representative.

 8. The essence of the dispute between nominalists and realists comes to three questions. Name those questions.

 9. Tell us about the idea of ​​"horse" in the opinion of Plato, Aristotle and in terms of conceptualism.

 10. How to solve the problem of the reality of universals in relation to humanity?

 11. What is the question related to universals, arises in relation to the source of the universe?

 12. What questions of the scholastic period are connected with the problem of the problem of the trinity of God?

 13. Whose ideas were declared heretical by the Church?

 14. Who finally decided the dispute between medieval nominalism and realism?

 15. What approach was proposed by Thomas Aquinas?

 16. Who is Thomas Aquinas? What was he called?

 17. On whose authority was Thomas Aquinas leaning in his philosophy?

 18. What is a man, according to Thomas Aquinas? How should he live?

 19. What is the will, according to Thomas Aquinas?

 20. What, according to Thomas Aquinas, leads a person to eternal bliss?

 21. Tell us about the ontology of Thomas Aquinas.

 22. What are 5 proofs of the existence of God put forward by Thomas Aquinas?

 23. What did Thomas Aquinas say about faith and reason?

 24. What, according to Thomas Aquinas, can be attributed to the subject of philosophy and what to the subject of theology?

Познавательные статьи:



Коммуникативные барьеры и пути их преодоления

Рынок недвижимости. Сущность недвижимости

Решение задач с использованием генеалогического метода

История происхождения и развития детской игры